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UNIT IIRESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (continued) 1. Education is intimately concerned with information, its dissemination, and assimilation by individuals, groups, societies, and nations. As an information technology tool, education thus has a vital part to play. 2. Knowledge and information are produced by subject experts such as researchers and scholars. Teachers assimilate this knowledge and pass it on to learners or students. Clever students may be capable of assimilating this knowledge for themselves – once they have achieved a particular threshold age. A teacher is regarded as being information-rich. In contrast, a student is one who is thought of as being information-deficient within this domain. The function of the teaching process is to transfer information from the teacher to the student. 3. Nowadays, easy access to microcomputers, intelligent terminals and communications facilities, particularly within the home, is likely to provide many new opportunities for use of such approaches to education. 4. One of the most interesting of these will probably arise through the development of expert systems. An expert system is a sophisticated software package that is able to support two basic types of human-computer dialogue. One of these is essentially an input operation, while the other is primarily dedicated to output operations. The potential role that expert systems could play within education is substantial. For example, they could be used to construct intelligent tutors and counseling aids; to build systems that are capable of training people in decision making, etc. Indeed, combining expert system technology with that of the videodisks could provide a powerful new educational medium for use in the home – an area where much future learning must take place, with government expenditure on education being reduced. 5. Undoubtedly, information technology as we perceive it today is going to have a significant impact in the future. Its greatest effects will be on people and the nature of lives they lead. People spend a large proportion of their time in their homes and it is here, therefore, where many new market opportunities for information technology products will probably arise. During the next decade the home is likely to change in many ways as novel domestic information technology–based services are made available. Some factors are likely to contribute to these changes: easy access to introduction of new storage media such as optical disks; highly intelligent software that reacts the user demands and others. 6. People must be given the opportunity of becoming informed about and deciding on those problems that directly influence their lives. Through new technology we are moving closer to this. However, there are still many social and cultural problems that remain to be solved, many of which stem from ignorance and a fear of technology. Naturally, one of the greatest fears at present is that information technology can bring substantial reductions in the workforce of those areas where it is applied. Примечания к тексту:
Первое чтение текста Попытайтесь понять общее содержание данного текста и, в частности, разберитесь, почему информационные технологии могут оказать огромное влияние на образ и стиль жизни людей. Для лучшего понимания и более глубокого усвоения языкового материала выполните письменно следующие задания. 1.Переведите следующие словосочетания согласно образцу. 2 1 Образец:communication facilities = средства связи 2 3 1 human-computer dialogue = диалог человека с машиной user demands; information technology tool; knowledge transfer process; expert system technology; decision making; computer-based teaching process; government expenditure; subject experts; market opportunities; computer networks. 2.Установите по тексту, с какими существительными связаны выделенные слова в следующих фрагментах (цифра в скобках обозначает номер абзаца.) … its dissemination and assimilation …(1); … one of the most interesting of these … (4); … that is able to support … (4); … they could be used to construct … (4); … combining expert system technology with that of the video disks … (4); … its greatest effects will be … (5); … many of which stem from…(6) 3.Пользуясь словарем, выберите нужное значение для выделенных многозначных слов. Предложения переведите на русский язык. 1.As an information technology tool, education has a vital part to play. 2.If it is required, the software will provide an explanation as to how and why it has made particular decisions. 3.Knowledge and information are produced by subject experts such as researchers and scholars. 4.During the next decade the home is likely to change as novel domestic information technology-based services are made available. 4.Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на выделенные слова. 1.The function of the teaching process is to transfer information from the teacher to the student. 2.Government expenditure on education is to be reduced in a non-harmful way. 3.Nowadays, easy access to microcomputers is likely to provide many new opportunities for education. 4.A teacher is regarded as being information-rich. 5.Expert system technology could provide a powerful new educational medium for use in the home, with government expenditure on education being reduced. Второе чтение текста Выделите в тексте самую важную информацию, выбрав из каждого абзаца предложения, выражающие основную идею. Выполните письменно следующие задания. 1.Выпишите правильные утверждения. 1.An expert system is a means to support human-computer dialogue. 2.An expert system is a rather simple one. 3.Expert systems can play a substantial role within education. 4.Expert system technology cannot be combined with that of videodisks. 2.Найдите в правой колонке подходящее продолжение для каждого предложения. Предложения запишите.
3.Кратко изложите содержание абзаца №5, используя следующие слова: to have a significant effect on; new market opportunities for i.t. products; to make available; novel domestic i.t.- based services. 4. Вам предстоит выступить с докладом на тему “Expert systems for education.» Составьте тезисы для своего выступления (не более 10 предложений). Используйте материал обеих частей текста. – Unit I u Unit II. 5.Внимательно прочтите текст, разбейте его на смысловые части, составьте план и напишите реферат. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AT THE DARMOUTH CONFERENCE 1.Unlike most fields you study in college, computer science, and in particular, artificial intelligence, does not have a long and distinguished history. Most of the basic ideas and, perhaps even more important, the basic sets of preconceptions that make up AI can be traced back only to the middle years of the 20th century. 2.The idea of creating an artificial intelligence is an old one. European literature is replete* with stories of one person or another accomplishing this goal, and it is presumably not coincidence* that “Frankenstein”, one of the great horror stories of all time, deals with a Dr. Frankenstein who builds an artificial person. 3.It is known that the many logicians and philosophers have labored to formalize, and ultimately to mechanize, the “laws of thougth”. One of the classic names here is that of George Boole (1815 – 1864) who invented boolean algebra. Today, Boole’s ideas have been incorporated into both mathematics and philosophy. But his concerns were artificial intelligence most of all, the book upon which his fame is based is titled “An Investigation of the Laws of Thought on Which Are Founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities” (1854), and in his preface he says this: “The laws we have to examine are the laws of one of the most important of our mental faculties*. The mathematics we have to construct are the mathematics of the human intellect.” 4.Nor is Boole the only name we could cite. But the plain fact of the matter is that it was only in the twentieth century that the intellectual tools (logic and the study of formalism) and the physical devices (from vacuum tubes to transistors, to chips) have been available. 5.Within this century, perhaps the first person to see clearly the possibility of computer intelligence was Alan Turing (1912 - 1954). Turing worked with precursors* of modern computers during World War II. After the war, in 1950, he published his famous article “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” in which he puts forward the idea that a computer could be programmed so as to exhibit intelligent behavior. He also examines, and rejects, arguments as to the impossibility of artificial intelligence. But probably the most famous contribution of the article is the so-called Turing test. Turing suggests a test in which we have a person in one room and a computer in the other, both claiming to be a person, and you would have to decide on the truth. If you failed at this task then one would be inclined to say that the computer was intelligent. 6.While this paper came out in 1950, as did another influential paper by Claude Shannon on the possibility of computers chess, most observers give 1956 as the start of artificial intelligence as we know it today, for 1956 was the date of the so-called Dartmouth Conference. The conference was organized by a young assistant professor of mathematics at Dartmouth named John McCarthy with the help of a friend of his at M.I.T.*, Marvin Minsky. McCarthy proposed that a two-month, ten-man study of artificial intelligence be carried out during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire. The study is to proceed on the basis of the conjecture* that every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it. 7.It is commonly known this is the first time the term “artificial intelligence” saw print. McCarthy seems to have invented the term, although he is not sure that he had not heard it from someone else, and he used it despite the fact that it seemed rather inflammatory* at the time. In the earlier papers on the topic he had used the “more respectable” term “automata studies”. 8.This conference was also the first meeting of the four men who would lead artificial intelligence, at least in the United States, for the next twenty years: McCarthy and Minsky whom we have already metioned, plus Allen Newell and Herbert Simon. The latter two seemed to be the most advanced of the group, already having a working AI program. These were not the only participants, but they proved to be the most influential, with Minsky establishing a group at M.I.T., McCarthy one at Stanford, and Newell and Simon already working in the area at what was then the Carnegie Institute of Technology (now Carnegie – Mellon University). 9.But aside from founding the field of artificial intelligence, relatively little was accomplished at the conference, certainly little compared to the hopes of the organizers. Although those who visited the Dartmouth campus that summer did not realize it, artificial intelligence is a very difficult field, for intelligence is a complicated business. Примечания к тексту:
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