Теория и практика составления словарей. Основная задача разработка принципов и приемов словарного описания лексики
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Сокращение – это еще 1 способ словообразования: 1)аббревиация – началась сначала в письме, затем начала проникать в устную речь: а)инициальные – читаются как названия букв – BBC, TV б)акронимы – прочитываются как слово: ROM, NATO, laser, ISIC в)сложносокращенные слова: V-day, A-bomb. 2)усечение – в первую очередь действует в разговорной речи. Отделение любой части речи: ad, lab, phone, pants, fridge. Есть проблема – считать ли усеченные слова самостоятельными? Усечению чаще всего подвергаются существительные, иногда прилагательные. Глаголы образуются от усечения основ по конверсии. Словослияние(blending) – образованные производные слова-слитки или бленды: smoke + fog = smog, breakfast + lunch = brunch. Соединяются не морфемы, а части слов. Бленды часто используются в рекламе, реже в сленге. 9. Этимологическая характеристика словарного состава англ.яз. Заимствования. Термин «заимствование» используется: 1)для обозначения процесса принятия языком иноязычной единицы 2)для обозначения результата этого процесса В узком смысле заимствование – это только перемещение используемой единицы в язык, и соответственно только перемещенная единица. Заимствоваться могут и связывающие основы, и аффиксы, и фонемы. В широком смысле заимствование – это и калькирование внутренней формы, структуры слова, но не его звучания. 10. Изменение значений слова. Причины изменения значения слова: А)экстралингвистическая – 1) меняются референты сл-но меняются значения: car – carrus – тележка, pen – гусиное перо, fire – хоть и нет фитилей (боевая команда), book – дощечки из бука; 2)появляются новые референты и не каждый раз образуется новое слово: caterpillar -гусеница – танк, wing – крыло – крыло здания, wings – кулисы. Б)лингвистическая – 1)возникает эллипсис (сокращение): STARVE – ср\анг – sterven + of hunger, потом – просто starve; SALE – от сut-price sale; PAPER – от newspaper; 2)взаимодействие синонимов (особенно с синонимичными заимствованными словами: LAND др\анг – суша, страна, фр. – страна = просто страна. Если у 1 синонима появляется новое значение, то оно передается и другим: to catch – ловить и понимать = to get, to crisp = понимать. 3)Происходит выделение слов из фразеологических сочетаний с новым значением - to draw a red herring across the path – зубы заговаривать = red herring – отвлекающий маневр. Способы изменения значения слова: 1)сужение значения (специализация). Родовидовые отношения м\д старым и новым значениями: fowl - любая птица – домашняя птица; meat -еда, пища - мясо. 2)расширение (генерализация) видо-родовые отношения: holiday – религиозный праздник – любой праздник; to arrive – причаливать – прибывать, приезжать; place – широкая улица, площадь - любое место. 3)метафора (в основе лежит сходство, уподобление 1 объекта другому) hand – это и рука, и стрелка, т.к. показывает на объект 4)метонимия (перенос по смежности) – bench – скамья, судьи (которые сидят на скамье). Сужение и расширение значений: 1)сужение значения (специализация). Родовидовые отношения м\д старым и новым значениями: fowl - любая птица – домашняя птица; meat -еда, пища - мясо. 2)расширение (генерализация) видо-родовые отношения: holiday – религиозный праздник – любой праздник; to arrive – причаливать – прибывать, приезжать; place – широкая улица, площадь - любое место. 11. Изменение значений слова. Неологизм – словосочетание, которое появилось недавно и осознается как новое. Неологизмы – новые слова, для обозначения новых предметов и понятий; сначала входят в пассивный словарь, когда переходят в общеупотребительные – перемещаются в активную лексику и перестают быть неологизмами .TV, e-mail – были неологизмами, а сейчас осознаются как обычные слова. Возникают с появлением новых понятий, изобретений, представлений. cell phone, mobile phone/ в середине 80-х – неологизм euro-skeptic (человек, который скептически относится к сближению с Европой). Edutainment = education + entertainment, automagically = automatically + magically. Н. появляются когда даются имена новым предметам и когда переименовываются старые вещи для оживления речи. Н надо отличать от окказионализмов, которые создаются одним человеком и не входят в широкое употребление. Устаревшая лексика: историзмы и архаизмы. Устаревшая лексика - слова, вышедшие из активного употребления, но сохранившиеся в пассивной лексике. Историзмы – слова, которые исчезли из жизни, т.к. исчезло понятие. Их можно встретить в научной и художественной литературе. Knight, warrior, wail (кольчуга). Историзмы вышли из употребления в связи с тем, что из жизни ушли обозначаемые ими предметы или явления – латы, кафтан, лапти, помещик, князь, опричник, редут. Синонимов в современном языке нет, особенно интенсивно переход в историзмы проходит в период переустройства или ломки общественных отношений: в русском языке – историзмы сов периода, продналог, нэп, рабфак, ликбез, кулак, буденовец. Используются в ЯХЛ для создания колорита исторической эпохи. Архаизмы – устаревшие слова, понятия, которые не уходят из обихода, устаревшие название современных предметов, вытесненные синонимами из состава активной лексики. Обычно они относятся к возвышенной, книжной лексике с торжественной окраской и имеют синонимы в нейтральном фоне языка: where of – из которого, herewith – при сем, perchance – может быть. Грамматические формы слов могут выходить из употребления. (th – как обозначение формы множественного числа: speaketh; местоимения вышли из употребления: thou, thee, thy, thine; глагол to be имел форму множ числа art.) Целые клише могут исчезать: methinks – мне кажется. ФОНЕТИКА №1 Phonetics as a science Phonetics as a branch of linguistics structure and functions of the speech sounds. - This branch of linguistics is called phonetics. Phonetics is an independent branch of linguistics like lexicology or grammar. These linguistic sciences study language from three different points of view. Phonetics studies the outer form of language; its sound matter.Phonetics occupies itself with the study of the ways in which the sounds are organized into a system of units and the variation of the units in all types and styles of spoken language. Theoretical Phonetics has the following branches: articulatory, acoustic,auditory,functional /phonologicalEach branch of Theoretical Phonetics investigates the appropriate aspect of speech sounds.Articulatory Phonetics investigates the functioning of one’s speech apparatus and mechanism. It is based on profound knowledge of physiology and the structure of one’s speech apparatus. While investigating the articulatory aspect of speech sounds both subjective and objective methods are employed: the method of direct observation (concerning the lips & the tongue movements) – subjective method and X-ray photography and X-ray cinematography (objective methods). Acoustic Phonetics studies the acoustic properties of sounds (quantity, timber/voice quality, intensity, the pitch of the voice and temporal factor) in terms of the frequency of vibration and the amplitude of vibration in relation to time. The analysis begins with a microphone, which converts the air movement into corresponding electrical activity. While investigating the acoustic aspect of speech sounds special laboratory equipment is employed: spectrograph, intonograph, sound analyzing & sound synthesizing machines. Auditory Phonetics is aimed at investigating the hearing process which is the brain activity. Functional Phonetics presupposes investigating the discriminatory (distinctive) function of speech sounds. №2 Phonological aspects of speech sound Phonological (Functional) Phonetics presupposes investigating the discriminatory (distinctive) function of speech sounds. While investigating the functional aspect of speech sounds the following methods are employed:
Distribution is a total sum of occurrences of a linguistic unit ( a phoneme, a morpheme, a word, a word combination). Distribution presupposes contexts in which a segment can be used. For example, in accordance with the distribution of the phoneme /N/ it can’t be used word initially. But we may use it word medially and word finally. Distribution
It is such a distribution in which different allophones of the same phoneme occur in mutually exclusive positions ( /t/: try, at the, twice, kettle, kitten)
It is such a distribution in which different allophones of the same phoneme occur in the same phonetic context but are realized differently (let me /’lemmi/ & /’let mi/). It is determined by social and territorial stratification of language.
It consists in finding as many pairs of words as possible which differ in one phoneme only (pen – then, box – fox). The substitution of one sound by another is called commutation test (when the meaning changes together with the change of sounds we deal with different phonemes (pen – then). If the meaning is not changed we deal with different variants of the same phoneme (believe - dark /l/ & light /l/ - different positional variants of the phoneme /l/). №6 Functional aspect of speech sound A social function of speech sounds manifest itself in their role in forming syllables, words, word combinations and sentences. A social function of speech sounds is determined by social and territorial stratification of the language. One’s pronunciation may change in accordance with a social situation and the contents of information.
The social function of speech sounds also signifies one’s origin. That is the place a person comes from. A representative of Cockney dialect pronounces insread of milk /milk/ - milk /mivk/; lady /leidi/ - lady /laidi/. №3 Articulatory and phisiological classification of english consunant According to the work of the vocal cords and the force of escalation consonants are subdivided into voice and voiceless voice consonant [v], [3]. Voiceless consonant are [p, t , k ,s ,f, th, h ,sh]. The force of escalation and the degree of muscular tension are greatly in the production of voiceless consonant they are call by the letting word forties which means strong and anagatic. Voice consonants are called leanest means soft and week. Because of force of escalation and the degree of muscular in their articulation are wickers. According the apposition to active organs of speech against point of articulation. Consonant of English glottal. Labial dental be consonant are produced with both lips, they are [p, t, n, w], and [п, п’, б, б’, н, н’]. Labial dental consonants are articulated with the Lowell lip against the age the upper teeth, thy are the [f, v] and [ф, ф’, в, в’]. According to the apposition of the tip of the tongue they may be:
The principal of consonant classification is rather universal the only difference is that (Vasiliev, Torsuev, Dyakushina, Jimson) give more detailed and praises enunciations of active organs of speech. Trakterov, Torsuev and Vasiliev and other phoneticians consider the principal of consonant classification according of the manner of noise production and the type of abstraction to be one of the most important and classified consonants according to this principal very correctly logically thoroughly. First of all they suggest a classification of consonants according to the manner of noise production from a viewpoint of the closure, which is formed in their articulation. It may be: 1) complete closure, the occlusive (stop or closive) and nuzzle consonants are produced [p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, ng] and R.S. [п, б, к, г, п’, б’, т’, д’, к’, г’, м’, н’, м, н]. 2) incomplete closure, than constrictive are produced: E.S. [f,v,th, th,h,s,z,sh,3,w,j,r] and R.S. [ф,в,с,з,х,ф’,в’,с’,з’,ж,ш,ж’,ш’,й,л,л’]. 3) the combination of the occlusive construction or affricates are produced [sh’3] R.S. [ц,ч]. 4) intermitted closure, then rolled or trilled consonants are produced R.S. [р, р’]. №4 Differenses in the basis of English and Russian consonants and their pecularities In differences in the articulated basis between two languages are in the general tendencies their native speakers have they make in silence, in the way they coordinate the work of the abstructure and vibrator mechanisms (leanest and forties articulation) they effect and transitions (close and lose transitions). Which give rise to the differences in the system of English consonants and in Russian are the following:
Consonant phonemes in Russia which have no counter parts in English are the following:
№7 Articulatory transitions of vowel and consonant phonemes In the process of speech, that is in the process of transition from the articulatory work of one sound to the articulatory work of the neighboring one, sounds are modified. These modifications can be conditioned:
Assimilation is the chief factor under the influence of which the principal variants of phonemes are modified into subsidiary ones. Assimilation is a modification of a consonant under the influence of a neighboring consonant. When a consonant is modified under the influence of an adjacent vowel or vice versa this phenomenon is called adaptation or accommodation, e.g. tune, tea, cool. To make the mechanism of articulatory transitions clear it should be viewed in detail in terms of the articulatory work of the speech producing mechanisms. There are two ways of joining the sounds: (1) merging of stages – when the final stage of the first sound merges with the initial stage of the second sound, loose type of articulatory transition and (2) interpenetration of stages – when the final stage of the first sound penetrates not only the beginning but also the middle of the second sound – close type of articulatory transition. For example in the word law the two /l/ and /o:/ are joined by way of merging their stages. Russian learners are apt to mispronounce English clusters /tn/, /dn/, /kt/, /gd/ because the mechanisms of the articulatory transitions from /t,d/ to /n/, from /k,g/ to /t,d/ in English and the Russian clusters /пт/, /кт/, /гд/ are different, that is, the timing of the work of the power, vibrator, resonator and obstructor mechanisms in English and Russian is different. For Example the Russian clusters /пт/, /кт/, /гд/ in аптека, факт, где /т,д/ are pronounced with an audible plosion of /п,к,г/. When the two sounds are affected by assimilation, it may influence: 1) the work of the vocal cords; 2) the active organ of speech; 3) the manner of noise production; 4) both: the place of articulation and the manner of noise production. №13 American based pronunciation American English shows a lesser degree of dialect than British due to some historical factors: the existence of standard English when first English settlers came to America, the high mobility of population, internal migrations of different communities. So there are 3 types of American language – 1. the eastern type (is spoken in new England, in New York city, it bears a remarkable resemblance to southern English.) 2. The southern type (used in south and south-east of USA, it possesses a striking distinctive feature – vowel drawl.) 3. general American.(is spoken in Atlantic states: New York, new jersey y etc., it’s the pronunciation standard as its language is used by radio and TV.) №8 English phonemes in writing Language performs its function as a means of intercommunication not only in oral but also in written form. Therefore it is important to establish the relationship between orthography and pronunciation, that is letters and sounds, which represent them. English dictionaries usually indicate the pronunciation of each individual word, because the English spelling system is very difficult. This is because 1) it represents two different languages, one of Romance and the other of Germanic origin; 2) the English spelling has remained essentially the same since the days of Caxton and the other early printers. As a result of this 60 symbols are used to represent vowels and diphthongs and 44 symbols are used to represent consonants in the written language. These symbols are separate letters or combinations of letters, which correspond to vowel and consonant phonemes. They are called graphemes. Graphemic symbols are included into angle brackets. From the phonological point of view, a grapheme has a considerable number of allophonic references, due to the complementary distribution or free variation, in which a phoneme occurs. For example, the grapheme The knowledge of orthography is very important because changes in orthography are much slower than changes in phonology. Therefore there are a large number of rules of reading in modern English. Given below is a simplified table of some grapheme-phoneme correspondences, illustrated by typical contexts. There are two notions in phonological literature which reflect the connection of orthography with syllables and morphemes: (a) syllabograph and (b) morphograph. The parts of a word which represent syllables graphically are called syllabographs. They may consist of a vowel, or a combination of vowels and consonants which corresponds to a syllable or syllables within the graphic norms of the analyzed. Transcription is quite indispensable in transliteration of names of persons, geographical names, magazines, names of ships, etc. Transliteration is writing a word, or words, of one language in the letters of some other language. №9 Syllable Thought the basic phonological elements are phonemes, human intercommunication is actualized in syllables. The syllable as a unit is difficult to define, thought native speakers of a language are usually able to state how many syllables there are in a particular word. The syllable can be a single word: chair, a part of a word: English, a part of the grammatical form of a word: later. The syllable analyzed from the acoustic and auditory, articulatory and functional points of view. The syllable can be viewed in connection with its graphic representation. Acoustically and auditorily the syllable is characterized by the force of utterance, or accent, pitch of the voice, sonority and length, that is by prosodic features. Acoustic properties of syllables are studied with the help of intonograph and spectrograph. Electroacoustic analysis made it possible to formulate some rules of syllable division. Spectrograms of Russian ГС syllabic structures show, that such syllables are characterized by some noise in the beginning of the vowel and by a vowel-like termination of the consonant: «ГС», it is of great importance for syllable division. Auditorily the syllable is the smallest unit of perception: the listener identifies the whole of the syllable and only after the sounds contained. The articulatory energy which constitutes the syllable results from the combined action of the power, vibrator, resonator and obstructor mechanisms. Phonologically the syllable is regarded and defined in terms of its structural and functional properties. Syllable in writing are called syllabographs and are closely connected with the morphemic structure of words. The syllable as a phonological unit performs three functions: constitutive, distinctive, identificatory. They are closely connected. The auditory image of a syllable can be shown in transcription: unknown, liner, maker. Parts of orthographic and phonetic syllables do not always coincide. It is very important to observe correct syllable division when necessity arises to divide a word in writing. Division of words into syllables in writing (syllabographs) is based on morphological principles. The morphological principle of word division in orthography demands that the part of a word, which is separated, should be either a prefix, or a suffix, or a root (morphograph): un-divided, utter-ance, pun-ish, be-fore. №10 Stress Sentence stress is a greater prominence of words, which are made more or less prominent in an intonation group. The special prominence of accented words is achieved through the greater force of utterance and changes in the direction of voice pitch, constituting the nuclear tone. The difference between stress and accent is based on the fact that in the case of stress the dominant perceptual component is loudness, in the case of accent it is pitch. Degrees of stress in an utterance correlate with the pitch range system. Nuclear stress is strongest – it carries the most important information. Non-nuclear stresses are subdivided into full and partial. Full stress occurs only in the head of an intonation group, partial stress occurs also in the prehead and tail. Partial stresses in the prehead are most frequently of a low variety, high partial stress can occur before a low head. Words given partial stress do not lose prominence completely, they may retain the whole quality of their vowels. In tone-grups stress may undergo alternations under the influence of rhythm, but there are some rules concerning words that are usually stressed or unstressed in an utterance. Given below is the list of words that are usually stressed: Nouns. Adjectives. Numerals. Interjections. Demonstrative pronouns. Emphatic pronouns. Possessive pronouns: somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything (used as subject). Indefinite negative pronouns some, any (expressing quality). Deferminatives: all, each, every, other, either, both. Proclitics: much, many, a little, a few. Notional verbs. Auxiliary verbs (negative contracted forms). Two-word prepositions. Two-word conjunctions. Particles: only, also, too, even, just. The word that are usually unstressed: Personal pronouns. Reflexive pronouns. Reciprocal pronouns. Relative pronouns (conjoint form). Indefinite pronouns: somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything (used as object). Indefinite pronouns some, any (when expressing quality). Auxiliary verbs (affirmative form). One-word prepositions and conjunctions. Articles. Particles: there, to. Modal verbs (contracted forms and general questions are exceptions). The meaning of the verbs may, should, must changes depending on whether they are stressed or unstressed, e.g. You may go – possibility. You may go – permission. Stresses in an utterance provide the basis for identification and understanding of the content, they help to perform constitutive, distinctive and identificatory function of intonation. These functions are performed jointly with pitch component of intonation. 11 Strong and weak forms. Unstressed vocalism In actual speech there is a great number of words which are pronounced in the weak or contracted form. They are more common than non-contracted or full forms. It applies to all styles and different manner of speech – formal or informal, slow or rapid tempo. The use of weak and contracted forms:
From the position of the Moscow and Leningrad phonological schools the relations between the vowel of full formation and /ae/ in the pairs mentioned above should be viewed differently. The representatives of the Moscow phonological school considered such relations to be interallophonic, because /ae/ is considered by them in the pairs like /s^m/ - /saem/ to be an allophone of the /^/ phoneme. The representative of the Leningrad school state that in the above examples /ae/ and /^/ undergo interphonemic changes and that they are separate phonemes. In the Russian language vowels in unstressed syllables may coincide in speech. E.g. /o, a/ in the first pretonic syllable are both pronounced as /^/: /^/ ванс, /л/ лень. The peculiarity of the unstressed vocalism of Russian is that an unstressed vowel never preserves its full form. Cases like potato, artistic are very common in English. There are some digraphs in English which are pronounced in unstressed syllables either as /ae/ or /i/, e.g. er – teacher ar – mortar or – motor ei – foreign ir – elixir ie – ie hobbie ou(s) – famous №12 Intonation Intonation is a complex unity of non-segmental, or prosodic features of speech: 1. melody, pitch of the voice; 2. sentence stress; 3. temporal characteristics (duration, tempo, pausation); 4. rhythm; 5. tamber (voice quality). Intonation is very important. It organizes a sentence, determines communicative types of sentences and clauses, divides sentences into intonation groups, gives prominence to words and phrases, expresses contrasts and attitudes. The two main functions of intonation are: communicative and expressive. There are two main approaches to the problem of intonation in Great Britain. One is known as a contour analysis and the other may be called grammatical. The first is represented by a large group of phoneticians: H.Sweet, D.Jones, G.Palmer, L.Armstrong, I.Ward, R.Kingdon, J.O’Connor, A.Gimson and others. It is traditional and widely used. According to this approach the smallest unit to which linguistic meaning can be attached is a tone-group (sense-group). Their theory is based on the assumption that intonation consists of basic functional “blocks”. They pay much attention to these “blocks” but not to the way they are connected. Intonation is treated by them as a layer that is superimposed on the lexico-grammatical structure. In fact the aim of communication determines the intonation structure. In fact the aim of communication determines the intonation structure, not vice versa. The grammatical approach to the study of intonation was worked out by M.Halliday. The main unit of intonation is a clause. Intonation is a complex of three systemic variables: tonality, tonicity and tone, which are connected with grammatical categories. Tonality marks the beginning and the end of a tone-group. Tonicity marks the focal point of each tone-group. Tone is the third unit in Halliday’s system. Tones can be primary and secondary. Then convey the attitude of the speaker. Halliday’s theory is based on the syntactical function of intonation. The founder of the American school of intonation is K.Pike. In his book “The Intonation of American English” he considers “pitch phonemes” and “contours” to be the main units of intonation. He describes different contours and their meanings, but the word “meanings” stands apart from communicative function of intonation. A.Antipova in her “System of English intonation” characterizes the approach of the American school to the study of intonation system as “mechanical”. №5 Articulatory and physiological classification of English vowel The first linguist who tried to classify vowel sounds for all languages was D.Jones. He device the system of 8 cardinal vowels. The basis of the system is physiological. Cardinal vowel #1 corresponds to the position of the front part of the tongue razed the gradual lowering of the tongue lowest position gives another point for cardinal point #5. The lowest front position of the tongue gives the point for cardinal #4. The upper back limit for the tongue position gives the point for cardinal #8. This position for cardinal vowels #1, 4, 5, 8 were copied from x-ray photographs the tongue positions between this points x-ray and equidistant points for #2, 3, 6, 7 were found. The symbols for the eight cardinal vowels are: 1 -i, 2 - e, 3 - ε, 4 - a, 5 - ^, 6 - o, 7 - ao, 8 - u . Below we give some ruff cardinal vowels quality. French, German and Russian languages. 1) is a equivalent of the position is higher than for the Russian accented sound [и] in word пили. 2) is pronouns with position of the tongue narrower than for the Russian sound [е] the word тесть. 3) is similar to the Russian sound [э] in the word это. 4) is similar to the French [a] in word la. 5) is narrowly what is obtained by taken the lip rounded from the e.s. [o] in word hot. 6) is similar to the German sound [o] in word zonne. 7) is similar to the French [o] in word rose. 8) is similar to the German sound [u] in word gud. Acoustically vowels differ dew their temporal colourly each vowel is characterized by it is all form (that is concentrations of energy in curtain frequency regions on the spectrogram). Russian phoneticians suggest a classification of a vowels according to the following principals: 1) position of the lips; 2) position of the tongue; 3) degree of tenseness and the character of the end; 4) length; 5) stability of articulation. ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА Первый семестр: 1. Общая характеристика строя английского языка. Особенности строя английского языка в области словообразования 2. Особенности строя английского языка в области словоизменения 3. Особенности строя английского языка в области синтаксиса. 4. Теории, объясняющие особенности развития грамматического строя английского языка 5. Проблемы классификации частей речи в зарубежной англистике 6. Проблемы классификации частей речи в отечественной англистике 7. Понятие грамматической категории и грамматического значения 8 Имя существительное 9 Имя прилагательное и имя числительное 10 Местоимение 11 Деиксис 12 Наречие 13. Глагол. Общая хар-ка. Категории лица, числа, вида-времени 14.Категория залога (диатеза) 15. Трактовка проблемы наклонения в отечественной и зарубежной англистики 16. Теория трёх наклонений 17. Нетрадиционно выделяемые знаменательные части речи. 18. Общая хар-ка служебных частей речи. Частицы 19. Предлоги и союзы 20. Артикль. Второй семестр: 1. ТЕОРИЯ СЛОВОСОЧЕТАНИЯ (СС) В ЗАРУБЕЖНОЙ АНГЛИСТИКЕ 2. ТЕОРИЯ СС В ОТЕЧЕСТВЕННОЙ ЛИНГВИСТИКЕ 3. ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЕ. ПРОБЛЕМА ОПРЕДЕЛЕНИЯ И ПРИЗНАКИ 4. КАТЕГОРИЯ ПРЕДИКАТИВНОСТИ 5. КАТЕГОРИЯ МОДАЛЬНОСТИ (М) 6. КАТЕГОРИЯ УТВЕРЖДЕНИЯ/ОТРИЦАНИЯ 7. АСПЕКТЫ ИЗУЧЕНИЯ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ. ПОНЯТИЕ ВЫСКАЗЫВАНИЯ 8. СТРУКТУРНЫЕ КЛАССИФИКАЦИИ И СТРУКТУРНЫЕ МОДЕЛИ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ 9. СИНТАКСИЧЕСКАЯ ПАРАДИГМА ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ (СПП) 10. ЧЛЕНЕНИЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ В ОТЕЧЕСТВЕННОЙ И ЗАРУБЕЖНОЙ ЛИНГВИСТИКЕ 11. СЕМАНТИКО-СИНТАКСИЧЕСКИЙ АСПЕКТ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ. СЕМ.ПАДЕЖИ/РОЛИ 12. СЕМАНТИКО-СИНТАКСИЧЕСКИЙ АСПЕКТ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ. ТИПЫ ПРЕДИКАТОВ 13. СПОСОБЫ ОПИСАНИЯ СМЫСЛА ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ В РАБОТАХ ОТЕЧ.ЛИНГВИСТОВ 14. ПРЕСУППОЗИЦИЯ 15. ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЕ В КОММУНИКАТИВНО-ИНФОРМАЦИОННОМ АСПЕКТЕ 16. КОММУНИКАТИВНО-ПРАГМАТИЧЕСКИЙ АСПЕКТ. РЕЧЕВОЙ АКТ И ЕГО СТРУКТУРА. ПОНЯТИЕ ПЕРФОРМАТИВНОГО ВЫСКАЗЫВАНИЯ, ПЕРФ.ГЛАГОЛА 17. КЛАССИФИКАЦИЯ РЕЧЕВЫХ АКТОВ 18. КОСВЕННЫЕ РЕЧЕВЫЕ АКТЫ. ПРАВИЛА РЕЧЕВОГО ОБЩЕНИЯ 19. ПРИНИЦПЫ КЛАССИФИКАЦИИ И АНАЛИЗА СЛОЖНОГО ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ 20. ЛИНГВИСТИКА ТЕКСТА: АСПЕКТЫ ИЗУЧЕНИЯ |
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