English for computing Часть 1 Учебное пособие
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FIVE GENERATIONS OF MODERN COMPUTERS As important as computers are to today’s businesses, hospitals, and educational institutions, they haven't been in general use very long. The computer is often described as having gone through five distinct generations. Each of these generations is based on the type of technology used during the period. First Generation (1945-1956) With the onset of the Second World War, governments sought to develop computers to exploit their potential strategic importance. This increased funding for computer development projects hastened technical progress. By 1941 German engineer Konrad Zuse had developed a computer, the Z3, to design airplanes and missiles. The Allied forces, however, made greater strides in developing powerful computers. In 1943, the British completed a secret code-breaking computer called Colossus to decode German messages. The Colossus impacts on the development of the computer industry. Colossus was not a general-purpose computer; it was only designed to decode secret messages. American Howard H. Aiken (1900-1973) succeeded in producing an all-electronic calculator by 1944. The Harvard-IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, or Mark I for short, was an electronic relay computer. It used electromagnetic signals to move mechanical parts. The machine was slow (taking 3-5 seconds per calculation) and inflexible (in that sequences of calculations could not change); but it could perform basic arithmetic as well as more complex equations. Another computer development was the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors and 5 million soldered joints, the computer was such a massive piece of machinery that it consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical power. Developed by John Presper Eckert (1919-1995) and John W. Mauchly (1907-1980), ENIAC, unlike the Colossus and Mark I, was a general-purpose computer that computed at speeds 1,000 times faster than Mark I. Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) are in now seen as the first electronic computer. In the mid-1940s John von Neumann (1903-1957) joined the University of Pennsylvania team, initiating concepts in computer design that remained central to computer engineering for the next 40 years. Von Neumann designed the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) in 1945 with a memory to hold both a stored program as well as data. This “stored memory” technique allowed the computer to be stopped at any point and then resumed, allowed for greater versatility in computer programming. The key element to the von Neumann architecture was the central processing unit which allowed all computer functions to be coordinated through a single source. In 1951 the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer), built by Remington Rand, became one of the first commercially available computers to take advantage of these advances. First generation computers were characterized by the fact that operating instructions were made-to-order for the specific task for which the computer was to be used. Each computer had a different binary-coded program called a machine language that told it how to operate. This made the computer difficult to program and limited its versatility and speed. Other distinctive features of first generation computers were the use of vacuum tubes and magnetic drums for data storage. Second Generation Computers (1956-1963) The invention of the transistor greatly changed the computer’s development. The transistor replaced the large cumbersome vacuum tube in televisions, radios and computers. As a result, the size of electronic machinery has been shrinking ever since. The transistor was at work in the computer by 1956. Coupled with early advances in magnetic-core memory, transistors led to second generation computers that were smaller, faster, more reliable and more energy-efficient than their predecessors. The first large-scale machines taken advantage of this transistor technology were early supercomputers, produced by IBM and LARC by Sperry-Rand. These computers could handle an enormous amount of data, a capability much in demand by atomic scientists. Second generation computers replaced machine language with assembly language, allowing abbreviated programming codes to replace long, difficult binary codes. These second generation computers (Burroughs, Control Data, Honeywell, IBM, Sperry-Rand) were also of solid state design, and contained transistors in place of vacuum tubes. They also contained printers, tape storage, disk storage, memory, operating systems, and stored programs. One important example was the IBM 1401. The stored program concept meant that instructions to run a computer were held inside the computer's memory, and could quickly be replaced by a different set of instructions for a different function. More sophisticated high-level languages such as COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) and FORTRAN (Formula Translator) came into common use during this time. New types of careers (programmer, analyst, and computer systems expert) and the entire software industry began with second generation computers. Third Generation Computers (1964-1971) Transistors still generated a great deal of heat which damaged the computer's sensitive internal parts. The quartz clock eliminated this problem. Jack Kilby, an engineer with Texas Instruments, developed the integrated circuit (IC) in 1958. The IC combined three electronic components onto a small silicon disk which was made from quartz. Scientists later managed to fit even more components on a single chip called a semiconductor. As a result, computers became ever smaller as more components were squeezed onto the chip. Another third-generation development included the use of an operating system that allowed machines to run many different programs at once with a central program that monitored and coordinated the computer's memory. Fourth Generation (1971 - Present) After the integrated circuits, the only place to go was down - in size, that is, large scale integration (LSI) could fit hundreds of components onto one chip. By the 1980s very large scale integration (VLSI) squeezed hundreds of thousands of components onto a chip. Ultra-large scale integration (ULSI) increased that number into the millions. The ability to fit so much helped diminish the size and price of computers. It also increased their power, efficiency and reliability. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, took the integrated circuit one step further by locating all the components of a computer (central processing unit, memory, and input and output controls) on a minuscule chip. Now one microprocessor could be manufactured and then programmed to meet any number of demands. These minicomputers came complete with user-friendly software packages most popularly word processing and spreadsheet programs. In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer (PC) for use in the homes, offices and schools. Computers continued their trend toward a smaller size, working their way down from desktop to laptop computers to palmtop. In direct competition with IBM’s PC was Apple’s Macintosh line, introduced in 1984. The Macintosh offered an operating system that allowed users to move screen icons instead of typing instructions. Users controlled the screen cursor using a mouse, a device that mimicked the movement of one's hand on the computer screen. As smaller computers became more powerful, they could be linked together, or networked, to share memory space, software, information and communicate with each other. As opposed to a mainframe computer which was one powerful computer that shared time with many terminals for many applications, networked computers allowed individual computers to form electronic co-ops. A global web of computer circuitry, for example, the Internet links computers worldwide into a single network of information. Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Computers have come from nowhere 50 years ago and are rapidly catching in capability with the human brain. We can expect human machine equivalence by about 2015. But after this, computers will get smarter. There is a noticeable positive feedback loop in technology development with each generation of improved computers giving us more assistance in the design and development of the next. Ultimately, they will design their offspring with little or no human involvement. This technology development will push every field of knowledge forwards, not just computing. But we will never get far unless we can solve the interface problem. In the near future we may have electronic pets, with video camera eyes and microphone ears, linked by radio to the family computer. With voice and language recognition we will have easy access to all that the Internet can provide. We can tell the pet what we want and it will sort it out of us. It will be impossible to be technophobic about such an interface, and the only IT skill needs will be to speak any major language. However, new computer programs and new methods of programming computers will have to be design and put into operation before we can be said to be fully engaged in this latest generation of computing. 18. General understanding: 1. What is the relationship between devices like EDVAC and the device that is the modern computer? 2. What was the name of the first electronic computer and what computing principles did it introduce? 3. On what electronic component was based the first generation of computers? Name a computer that reprimands this generation. 4. What new methods of programming were introduced with the first generation of computers? 5. What new invention is associated with the second generation of computers? 6. Contrast the second and third generations of computers by describing hardware and software development that emerged during each period. 7. Contrast how microcomputers are used with the way second and third generation computers? 8. What are some of the names used to refer to a small computer, a microprocessor? 19. Choose the correct answer. Watch this section and tick the right answers below.
20. Try and complete the following crossword. 1. ……… 2. On this component was based the first generation of computers. 3. All the events that happened in the past. 4. A chip, or integrated circuit, that process the instructions provided by the software. 5. A set of programs that controls the way a computer works and runs other programs. 6. This computer became one of the first commercially available computers to take advantage of these advances. 7. A small electronic device used in computers, radios, televisions, etc. for controlling an electric current as it passes along a circuit. 8. An area of study concerned with making computers copy intelligent human behavior. 9. A small microchip that contains a large number of electrical connections and performs the same function as larger circuit made from separate parts. 10. A stage in development of a technical product.
21. Find in the text passages about the first generation computers and translate them into Russian. 22. Choose a passage from those you’ve translated and read it aloud (the approximate time of reading is 2-3 minutes). 23. Find in the text and put down 10-12 words or word combinations which can be used to speak about the second generation computers. 24. What do you know about the computers of the third generation? Read the statements given below and if you think the statement is true agree to it saying “That’s right” If you think it is not true, disagree saying “That’s wrong” and make the necessary corrections. 1. The computers of the third generation did not generate a great deal of heat. 2. An engineer Jack Kilby developed the integrated circuit (IC) in 1958. 3. The IC combined three electronic components onto a small silicon disk which was made from silicon. 4. Scientists managed to fit more components on a semiconductor. 5. The ability to translate a foreign language is also moderately possible with third generation computers. 6. Another third-generation development included the use of an operating system. 25. Read the translation of the paragraph given below. Compare it with the original and say if everything is right. Чип Intel 4004, разработанный в 1981 году, продвинул интегральные схемы на шаг вперед, вместив все компоненты компьютера (CPU, память, устройства ввода и вывода данных) на один небольшой чип. Сейчас любой микропроцессор может быть сконструирован и запрограммирован так, чтобы отвечать любым требованиям. Эти миникомпьютеры были выпущены в комплекте с дружественным пользовательским интерфейсом, особенно популярным текстовым редактором и электронными таблицами. В 1971 году фирма IBM представила свой персональный компьютер для использования дома, в офисе и школах. Компьютеры продолжали свое движение по уменьшению размера, разрабатывая от настольного компьютера к лэптопам, а затем и к палмтопам. В тесной конкуренции с компанией IBM, Макинтош представил свою линию компьютеров в 1984 году. 26. Look through the text again to find two facts which were quite new to you and two facts which were already known to you. 27. Answer the following questions. If necessary, look through the text again.
28. Give the main idea of extract “Five Generations of Modern Computers” in 25-30 sentences. Listening Practice 29. Listen to the text “The first computers” and answer if these sentences are true (T) or false (F)?
30. Put the sentences in the right order. 1. who, did, the, the people, the books, calculations, called, and, wrote, were, computers. 2. in the 1820s, called Charles Babbage, a machine, a British mathematician, invented, that, difficult calculations, automatically, did, very. 3. programs, old, for, Zuse, making, machines, wrote, film, his, by, holes, in, cinema. 4. in, built, 1938, he, machine, parents’, his, Berlin, living, first, the Zl, in, in, his, room. 5. not, Babbage, making, did, finish, the, Difference, Engine. 6. work, on, a, started, called, an, Babbage, machine, Analytical, Engine. 31. Think the arguments for and against this statement. Computers will catch up with the power and speed of the human brain by 2050. Some time after that the computing will start outstripping us and taking over from us. 32. Choose one side only – for or against the statement. Now listen to the recording and note down any points in support of your side. 33. Using your notes and your own ideas, try to persuade the rest of your group to accept your views on the statement in task 30. Writing Practice 34. Summarise the views of Pearson and of the experts you heard on the Future of Information Technology. Give your own comments on their views. Write about 250 words. 35. Skim the text; write a summary in English about what it is. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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