Учебное пособие по английскому языку для студентов экономических специальностей факультета заочного обучения
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| Part 1 The individual consumer or household is assumed to possess a utility function, which specifies the satisfaction, which is gained from the consumption of alternative goods. The consumer's income or income-earning power determines which quantity is available to the consumer. The consumer then selects a good that gives the highest possible level of utility. With few exceptions, the consumer is treated as a price taker - that is, the consumer is free to choose whatever quantities income allows but has no influence over prevailing market prices. In order to maximize utility the consumer purchases goods so that the rate of substitution for each pair of goods equals the rate of substitution given by the ratio of their market prices. This basic utility-maximization analysis has been modified and expanded in many different ways. Do you know these words? utility полезность satisfaction удовлетворение alternative good альтернативный товар quantity количество to treat относиться к чему-то, воспринимать rate норма to purchase покупать, делать покупки to equal равняться Theory of the Producer Part 2 The individual producer or firm is assumed to possess a production function, which specifies the quantity of output produced as a function of the quantities of the inputs used in production. The producer's revenue equals the quantity of output produced and sold, and the cost to the producer equals the sum of the quantities of inputs purchased. Profit is the difference between revenue and cost. The producer is assumed to maximize profits. Profit maximization requires that the producer use each factor to a point at which its marginal contribution to revenue equals its marginal contribution to cost. Do you know these words? to possess владеть, обладать to specify определять difference разница marginal предельный cost стоимость to assume допускать to produce производить revenue доход each каждый point точка contribution вклад УПРАЖНЕНИЯ I. Найдите в правой колонке русские соответствия следующих слов : consumer владеть household расширять to possess выбирать income изменять to modify минимизировать to choose потребитель to maximize доход to expand домохозяйство II. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на инфинитивный оборот «Сложное подлежащее». 1. The members of the committee were expected to come to an agreement. 2. Many buildings were reported to have been damaged by the fire. 3. The delegation is reported to have left London. 4. Many people are expected to attend the meeting. 5. This mine is considered to be the best in the district. 6. The results of the experiment can't be considered (to be) bad. III. Переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. Не is said to be in Moscow. 2. The agreement is expected to be signed this week. 3. The expedition is reported to have left on the 15th May. 4. He is known to be of a different opinion on this question. 5. He is considered to be one of the best pilots in our country. 6. This house is said to have been built about two hundred years ago. IV. Опишите несколькими фразами теорию поведения потребителя и производителя. ТЕКСТ 10 World bank The World Bank is the world's intergovernmental organization concerned with the external financing of the economic growth of developing countries. The official title of the institution is the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). Before recommending a Bank loan, the staff of the Bank must be reasonably satisfied that the productivity of the borrowing country will be increased and that the prospects for repayment are good. A country must be judged creditworthy. Engineering investigations are frequently carried out to determine the probable relation of a proposed project to benefits and costs. Increasingly, however, the Bank has shifted somewhat away from project lending (e.g., for a dam or a highway or a port); it has become concerned with education and other human services, the environment, and, through loans, the modification of governmental policies that are thought to have impeded long-run growth. The Bank has also paid increasing attention to the evaluation of previous lending. Recently, moreover, it has acceded to the requests of the American secretary of the treasury to help to ease the huge, outstanding, largely commercial-bank debt. Do you know these words? the treasury казначейство to finance финансировать to develop развиваться loan заем to borrow брать взаймы productivity производительность to carry out осуществлять, проводить costs издержки benefit польза; прибыль increasingly все больше to lend давать в долг adjustment регулирование modification изменение debt долг to acced to a request соглашаться с просьбой to impede препятствовать, мешать УПРАЖНЕНИЯ I. Найдите в правой колонке русские соответствия следующих слов : intergovernmental служебный персонал staff оценка to increase политика investigation повышать to shift сдвигаться education исследование policy предыдущий evaluation межгосударственный previous образование II. Раскройте скобки, используя инфинитивный оборот «Сложное дополнение» 1. We made the sellers (pack) the goods according to the requirements of the contract. 2. We expect the goods (arrive) tomorrow. 3. If you want us (make) the work quickly you should let us (start) at once. 4. Would you like us (send) the consignment now? 5. They won't let the goods (leave) the customs till the shipping documents have been checked. 6. Please let us (know) the results of your inspection as soon as possible. 7. He made us (wait) for two hours. 8. We'd like the buyers (remit) the funds to our account. 9. We want you (answer) promptly. 10. We saw the ship (go out) of the port. 11. The terms of delivery allow us (use) all kinds of shipment. 12. We expect our order (receive) most attention. 13. We want you (effect) payment within three days upon the receipt of shipping documents. 14. We expect you (open) a credit at the Alpha Bank. III. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на инфинитивный оборот «Сложное подлежащее». 1. They are very likely to take part in this work. 2. The vessel is not likely to arrive at the port of destination before the 1st of October. 3. They are most likely to have concluded the agreement. 4. This house is likely to have been built at the beginning of the nineteenth century. 5. He is sure to be appointed manager of the factory. 6. He is sure to like his new work. 7. The agreement is certain to have been signed. IV. Переведите на русский язык: 1. The goods sold under contract № 25 are known to have been shipped. 2. The rest of the goods under the contract are likely to shipped in the first half of September. 3. Oil has been known to exist in Azerbaijan since ancient times. 4. The cargo does not seem to have been damaged by the storm. 5. This invention is considered to be of great importance in shipbuilding. 6. The negotiations are likely to continue until Saturday. 7. The cargo of this steamer is stated to consist of 3,000 tons of wheat and 2,000 tons of barley. 8. The steamer, which is believed to be approaching Istanbul, is sure to arrive in Odessa at the end of this week. 9. The parties are understood to have reached an agreement. 10. The parties are reported to be considering the question of extending the agreement for 6 months. V. Переведите на русский язык: 1. The devaluation of the pound sterling is known to have led to a rise in the prices of all goods imported into England. 2. The opening of the conference is understood to have been fixed for the 15th December. 3. The price of this metal in England is stated to have risen by 11.6 per cent, in September, 1956. 4. Imports of copper into that country in October, 1954 were stated to be 22,441 tons. 5. A great number of inventions is known to have been suppressed by monopolistic industrial associations in capitalist countries. 6. Many million tons of coal reserves are known to exist in that district. 7. Two shiploads of ore expected to arrive shortly will be sent to that works. 8. The experiment, which is believed to have proved most successful, will be discussed at the conference. VI. Задайте 4 вопроса к тексту, предварительно выписав ключевые слова. КОНТРОЛЬНЫЕ РАБОТЫ ВАРИАНТ 1 Economic system A society needs to choose an economic system - a particular set of institutions and a coordinating mechanism — to respond to the economizing problem. Economic systems can differ as to (I) who owns the factors of production and (2) the method used to coordinate and direct economic activity. The private ownership of resources and a system of markets and prices to coordinate economic activity characterize pure capitalism. In such market systems each participant acts in his or her own self-interest; each individual or business seeks to maximize its satisfaction or profit through its own decisions. The system allows the private ownership of capital, communicates through prices, and coordinates economic activity through markets - places where buyers and sellers come together. Goods and services are produced and resources are supplied by whoever is willing and able to do so. The result is competition among many small, independently acting buyers and sellers of each product and resource. Thus, economic power is widely dispersed. ВАРИАНТ 2 Advertising Advertising is defined as the nonpersonal communication of information about products, services, or ideas through various media. Advertising may be classified by target audience (consumer, industrial), by geography (local, international), by medium (radio, newspaper, television), or by its function or purpose (product advertising, noncommercial advertising, action advertising). Advertising began in ancient times when most people could not read or write. As manufacturing and communication technologies developed, so did advertising. Printing was the first major technology to affect it, and cable television and computers are the most recent. Since World War II, advertisers have attempted to differentiate products through different strategies and techniques. As a marketing tool, advertising serves several functions: to identify and differentiate products; to communicate information about the product; to induce the trial of new products by new users and to suggest repurchasing by existing users; to stimulate a product's distribution; to increase product use; to build brand preference and loyalty; to lower the overall cost of sales. ВАРИАНТ 3 Principles of taxation There are three main principles of taxation: ability-to-pay principle, benefits-received principle, redistribution of income principle. Ability-to-pay principle of taxation implies that taxation should be based on the financial standing of the individual. Thus, persons with high income are more ready to pay large amounts of tax than people on low incomes. In practice, the ability-to-pay principle has been adopted by most countries as the basis of their taxation systems (progressive taxation). Benefits-received principle of taxation implies that those who benefit most from government-supplied goods and services should pay the taxes . Redistribution-of-income principle of taxation implies that the taxation system, together with state welfare programmes, should be used to benefit poorer households at the expense of richer households. A number of British researchers tried to assess the extent of income redistribution. It turned out that the poorest 20% of the population receives only 2% of total original income, but after taxation and state benefits they receive 10% of total final income. ВАРИАНТ 4 Monopoly Monopoly is a market structure with only a single seller of a commodity or service dealing with a large number of buyers. When a single seller faces a single buyer, that situation is known as bilateral monopoly. The most important features of market structure are those, which influence the nature of competition and price determination. The key element in this segment of market organization is the degree of seller concentration, or the number and size distributions of the sellers. There is monopoly when there is only one seller in an industry, and there is competition when there are many sellers in an industry. In cases of an intermediate number of sellers, that is, something between monopoly and competition, there can be two sellers (duopoly), a few sellers (oligopoly), or many sellers (atomistic competition). Today the term monopoly includes any group of firms which act together to fix prices or levels of production. ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ТЕКСТЫ ТЕКСТ 1 The Time goes even further ahead The Times is the most successful national newspaper in Britain. Average daily sales have risen by more than 120,000 since the weekday price was reduced to 30p in September, an increase of 26 per cent in six months. Sales in January were up by 16,000 compared with December. That success continued last month, when sales increased by another 12,500 — against a drop of 18,000 for the Daily Telegraph. The Times is now 63,000 ahead of The Guardian and 175,000 ahead of The Independent, which now sells fewer copies than any other national daily and was overtaken last month by the Financial Times. At 40p on Saturdays, 30p less than the Daily Telegraph, The Times is the best value, with the best writing, of any quality paper. ТЕКСТ 2 They do not toy with competition There are 5 major companies in the USA competing in toy production. This competition in quality and product design is very active, though in general the toy industry is blooming and the share prices rise every year. So the toys bring joy not only to kids but grown-up shareholders as well. Some of the toy companies produce mainly traditional toys, like famous Barbie (the Mattel Corporation) or Playdoh (the Tonka Corporation), while others try to capture a bigger market share by producing battery-powered toys (like Micromachines metal toys made by Galoob Corporation). Some companies have entered this highly-competitive market with attractive board games. But the real threat to toy makers of the traditional style came when video games broke into the market. The most powerful competitor is the Japanese company Nintendo whose sales of hand-held video games are almost 20 per cent of the American toy-market. The American companies are also trying to increase their foreign sales. When the competition is tough, the competitors may come up any moment with something new and exciting. So let us wait and see. ТЕКСТ 3 In the industry biosphere, only the strongest survive Part 1 Clusters is a term given to geographical areas in which a large number of companies working in the same industry or sector have concentrated. They are a common feature of active and healthy economies. Examples include Silicon Valley in California, the high-technology and biotechnology concerns around Cambridge in the UK, and the aerospace and engineering companies around Toulouse in France. Companies in a cluster are locked together in a kind of interdependence, like organisms in a biosphere. They compete for market share, employees and resources. They also rely on each other. Acting together, they generate skills and knowledge of their particular sector that form a kind of critical mass on which all the members can draw. ТЕКСТ 4 In the industry biosphere, only the strongest survive Part 2 Clusters often begin with a single company: Silicon Valley's technology cluster famously began with Hewlett-Packard. These successful companies generate talented managers and entrepreneurs, who in time leave to set up new concerns. As these grow, skilled employees begin to migrate between businesses, seeking the best opportunities. There are really only two ways to survive in a cluster environment: to grow continuously into the biggest fish in the pond, or to develop self-dependent systems and move out, relocating to a region where competition will be less vigorous. The former strategy was adopted by Larry Ellison, who saw early that the only way to win in Silicon Valley was to become big. The latter path was pursued by Bill Gates and Paul Allen at Microsoft: they preferred independence and moved to the Pacific north-west. Clusters are often favoured by politicians and economic planners, who see opportunities for overall prosperity. But working in a cluster is not for the faint-hearted. They offer little security and few safety nets. As in a biosphere, only the strong survive. ТЕКСТ 5 Spot market and quotation Spot marker is a market for the purchase and sale of commodities and financial instruments for immediate delivery (usually, within two working days). Spot prices for commodities and financial instruments transacted at different locations are harmonised by arbitrage. Arbitrage means the buying or selling of commodities and financial instruments between two or more markets in order to take profitable advantage of any differences in the prices quoted in these markets. By simultaneously buying in a low-price market and selling in the high-price market a dealer can make a profit from any disparity in prices between them, though in the process of buying and selling the dealer will add to demand in the low-price market and add to supply in the high-price market and so narrow or eliminate the price disparity. ТЕКСТ 6 'Electroniс' money Banknotes or checks are no longer required to make payments. Automatic teller machines, which allow cash to be dispensed to bank customers even when banks are closed, cannot be considered a new form of money. Rather, the developments in question are known as the point of sale (POS) system, which allows for cashless shopping in retail stores or gives bank customers the opportunity to make transfers via videotext TV. СОДЕРЖАНИЕ Предисловие…………………………………………………….. 4 I курс начинающие. Тексты, упражнения…………………….. 6 Контрольные работы………………………………………….. 28 I курс продолжающие. Тексты, упражнения………………… 30 Контрольные работы………………………………………….. 56 II курс начинающие. Тексты, упражнения…………………… 58 Контрольные работы………………………………………….. 85 II курс продолжающие. Тексты, упражнения……………….. 87 Контрольные работы…………………………………………. 115 Дополнительные тексты……………………………………… 117 Содержание…………………………………………………… 120 |
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