§ 1 Should and ought to in comparison
Should and ought to are very much alike in meaning and are often interchangeable.
Ought to has more stress on the meaning of moral obligation, whereas should is common in instructions and corrections.
1. Should/ought to are used to talk about
obligation, duty and similar ideas: You shouldn’t say things like that. You ought to know it.
advice: You ought to read this book. You should read this book. It is very interesting.
NOTE: Should may acquire additional shades of meaning, such as desirability: It’s late. You should go to bed.
in formal notices and on information sheets: Students should be prepared to answer questions on this point.
NOTE: Ought to is not used in this case.
assumption about present or past actions. The plane should be landing now (I expect it is landing).
The letter should have arrived by now (I expect it has arrived).
2. Should/ought to + Continuous Infinitive express the idea that the subject is not fulfilling his obligations or that he is acting rashly or foolishly: He ought to be studying for the exams. He shouldn’t be playing baseball for hours.
3. Should/ought to + Perfect Infinitive in:
a) an affirmative sentence indicates an unfulfilled or neglected action in the past: He looks very ill. He should have stayed at home.
b) a negative sentence means that an undesirable action was carried out: They shouldn’t have concealed it from us.
§ 2 Must, should, and ought to in comparison
Notice some peculiarities in the shades of meanings of must, should, ought to:
1. Should/ought to express obligation or advisability. Must in this meaning sounds too forceful and peremptory: You should do it at once. You ought to do it at once. You must do it at once.
2. Should / ought to + Perfect Infinitive show that the action has not been fulfilled though it was desirable: You should have helped him. (But you didn’t do that)
3. Must + Perfect Infinitive denotes conclusions about the past: He must have come by taxi. (I suppose)
§3 Emotional should: in subordinate clauses,
emphatic constructions
1. Should is found in:
that-clauses after adjectives and nouns expressing the importance (important, necessary, vital, essential, eager, anxious, concerned, wish): It is important that she should talk to me when she gets here. Is it necessary that my uncle should be informed? It is his wish that the money should be given to charity
object clauses:
a) following the principal clause with it as a formal subject after such expressions as (it is wonderful, absurd, monstrous, natural, old, queer, strange, terrible, etc): It is absurd that such things should happen to me. It was strange that he should be asking those questions
b) beginning with why: I don’t know why we shouldn’t make friends.
rhetorical questions beginning with why: Why should I do that? It’s rendered in Russian as: с какой стати…? Why shouldn’t you have dinner with us?
attributive clauses beginning with why after the noun ‘reason’: I don’t see any reason why we shouldn’t be happy.
subordinate clauses after words expressing personal judgements and reactions: It’s astonishing that she should say that sort of things to you. I’m sorry you should think I did it on purpose
after the words in case, for bear that and lest, so that, in order that: She turned the radio down so that she shouldn’t wake the children up.
NOTE: It is impossible to use ought to for emotional colouring.
2. Learn some set phrases with should:
How should I know?
I’m sorry that you should think so badly of me.
That it should come to this! (И до чего дошло дело!)
To think that it should come to this! (Только подумать, до чего дело дошло!)
To think that it should have happened to me! (Только подумать, что это произошло со мной!)
E x e r c i s e s
1. Comment on the meaning of the modal verbs should/ought to. Translate the sentences.
What do you think we ought to do about babies? – asking for an opinion about something.
He ought to be in looking after his mother.
I should have hated that, but I enjoyed going there so awfully.
You shouldn’t go out without an overcoat.
If you are interested in pictures you should look in at the British Museum.
Why should I tell you a lie?
Why shouldn’t I stay with you?
Why, where should I be without you?
Why in the world, shouldn’t you listen to me?
Should you find it necessary to communicate with me, send a message.
2. Give some advice to a person or express disapproval.
Your friend is always coughing because he smokes too much. – You should stop smoking.
Your friend has a bad toothache.
Your friend rides his bicycle at night without lights on.
Your friend is going to visit Greece.
The bus driver is driving too fast.
The tourists are discussing their further rout of the trip too loudly.
Two girls are arguing about the history of Westminster Abbey.
3. Complete these sentences.
I don’t suppose you’ll see Tom this evening but if you should see him, can you ask him to phone me?
I don’t think Ann will arrive before I get home but …
I don’t think there will be any letters for me while I’m away but …
I don’t suppose you’ll need any help but …
The doctor recommended that …
Our advertising manager insisted that …
The museum guide suggested that …
The landlord demanded that …
4. Complete these sentences using the modal verbs must/should/ought to.
Doctor! I think the patient stopped breathing. You must come immediately!
I don’t think anything’s seriously wrong with the patient, but you … call in and see her if you have time.
Jeanie’s got a cold. I don’t think she … go to school today.
What Jeanie has is infectious. She … go to school.
If she has a high temperature, she … stay in bed until the doctor comes.
It won’t do her any harm to go out, but she … wear an overcoat, there’s a cold wind.
If a woman is expecting a child, and hasn’t had German measles, she … be vaccinated against it because it can carry a serious risk.
It’s not compulsory for children to be vaccinated against measles but in my opinion they … be.
5. Respond to the statements with constructive suggestions, using the words in brackets.
John’s very overweight. (diet) He ought to go on a diet.
The train leaves in less than half an hour. (hurry up)
My handbag’s been stolen. (report to police)
We’re going to Africa on a safari holiday. (buy a good camera)
She stayed in the sun too long and was badly sunburst. (be more sensible)
You shall sit by me, and amuse me.
Now you shall look at it face to face.
Shall I leave the things here, sir?
I made a mistake about this afternoon. It shall not occur again.
If I come there you shall know about it.
You shall not slip through my fingers!
“ You shall see that Chris yourself tonight.”
6. Complete these sentences using the modal verbs should or have to with the correct form of the infinitive in brackets.
We should have called (call) on him yesterday, but we were too busy as we … (attend) an extra meeting. – We should have called on him yesterday, but we were too busy as we had to attend an extra meeting.
I … not (tell) him this news; he was so much upset, but I really … (do) so, for the circumstances demanded that.
You … (see) him dance! You’ve missed a lot. I … (take) you to the concert.
It was very hard work but we … (do) it.
The mother … ( punish) the boy severely to make him understand he was not right.
Although it was very painful for the mother but she … (punish) the boy.
7. Translate from Russian into English.
Вы, должно быть, ошибаетесь, на двадцать пятой странице нет таких слов.
Вам следует помочь ей, она ведь очень устала.
Вам бы следовало сделать то, что я вам говорила, тогда вы не оказались бы в таком глупом положении.
Вы должны были мне сказать, что вы больны.
Вы не должны позволять ей читать в сумерки, она может испортить глаза.
Я вас, должно быть, неправильно понял и поэтому пришел так рано.
Почему я должен хвалить вашу работу? Она неудовлетворительна.
Почему я должен принять его предложение? Я не согласен с ним.
С какой стати я должен ему помогать?!
Ради чего я буду разговаривать с ней?
И зачем ты поедешь туда?
Это лекарство следует держать в холодном месте.
Вам не следует разочаровываться.
Вам следовало бы прекратить спор, как только поняли, что вы неправы.
Вам следует еще раз обдумать это предложение, прежде чем отвергнуть его.
Он должен был бы отказаться от приглашения, если он был так занят.
Unit 10 S h a l l
Shall is found to express obligation, warning, promise, threat. It is also used to ask for instructions.
1. Shall is used in interrogative sentences with the first and third persons meaning obligation or asking for instructions: Shall I get you some coffee? Who shall answer the phone? It is rendered in Russian as: Принести вам еще кофе? Кому отвечать по телефону? Shall I open the window? What on earth shall we do?
2. Shall is used to express obligation but it is always combined with the function of an auxiliary verb of the future tense. Shall occurs in affirmative and negative sentences: We shall be landing in Paris in 10 minutes. I shall miss him terribly. The verb is found with the second and the third person expressing promise, threat, warning. You shall have my answer tomorrow. You shall stay just where you are! He shall do as I say! I want to know all the gossip , all the scandal. – You shall dear, you shall.
3. Shall is often used with third person to refer to duties: The officer shall be responsible for the fleet of lorries. The President shall hold office for 5 years.
E x e r c i s e s
1. Comment on the meaning of the verb shall. Translate the sentences.
The victory of peace can and shall be won. There shall be no war! Shall expresses promise it is always combined with the function of an auxiliary verb of the future tense
He shall do it whether he wants it or not.
What shall I do with it?
You shall answer for it!
The senior manager shall be responsible for this department.
It was an incredible feat, one which I shall never forget.
A player shall not lift the seam of the ball for any reason.
Shall we sort you out and make you more comfy?
The Prime Minister shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen in this field.
Verily I say unto you, that one of you shall betray me.
I shall be calling fore you at seven o’clock.
The editor’s decision is final and shall evermore remain so.
2. Make offers for the following situations. Think of your own situations.
An old lady clearly wants to put her large suitcase on the luggage rack.
A young woman is shivering and the window is open.
Your friend accidentally drops some sheets of paper on the floor.
3. Make suggestions to a friend for the following situations. You feel like ...
going for a swim? Shall we go for a swim? Yes, let's./Yes. let's, shall we? No. I'd rather we didn't.
driving to the coast,
having a meal out this evening,
travelling first class,
having a holiday in.
going to the theatre,
visiting an art gallery,
baking a pie,
making a sea voyage,
climbing up the mountain,
calling a taxi,
4. Translate these sentences from Russian into English.
В котором часу мне приходить?
Ты никуда не пойдешь, пока не сделаешь уроки!
Не двигайся! Стой, где стоишь!
Эти глупцы будут делать то, что я им велю.
Сегодня ты выслушаешь меня, я не дам тебе уйти.
Они за всё мне ответят, вот увидишь!
Мне принести ещё кофе? – Да, спасибо.
Кому делать доклад? Кто будет отвечать за все?
Что же мы теперь будем делать!?
Финансовым отделом будет руководить Г-н Смитс.
Unit 11 Will and would
Will and would are considered to be the forms of the same verb. Its original meaning is volition. However, in some of their meanings the use of will is equal only to would which denotes an actual fact in the past; in other meanings will is found alongside would which expresses unreality in the present or serves as a more polite form of will.
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