Пояснительная записка
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Text C. BUBBLE MEMORY Bubble memory is a storage for programs and information. It is a storage technology which combines both semiconductor and magnetic recording techniques to create a solid state storage device. Bubble memory is unique, be cause it is a disk that doesn't spin. The bits on the surface spin around the disk instead. Bubble memory units are only two square inches in size, and contain a thin film recording layer. The bits, called bubbles of their globular shape, are electromagnetically generated in circular strings inside this layer. In order to read or write the bubbles, the strings of bubbles are made to rotate past the equivalent (the string of bubbles) of a read/write head in a disk. Bubble memory holds its contents without power, like disk and tape. It is considerably faster than floppy disks and many hard disks. It is often used in portable terminals and computers instead of disks. 7. APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS Computers are getting deeper and deeper into our life. They are indispensable in space research, communication, medicine, metallurgy, light industry, information technology and many others branches of industry. Many countries have introduced computers into agriculture, education, transport and many other spheres. Computers provide security and safety of various processes, diagnose numerous cases and do a lot in monitoring different developments. In short they help to carry out increasingly complex tasks and their application sometimes helps to prevent disasters, tragedies and accidents. The applications of computers appear to be so numerous that it is hard to visualize any aspect of contemporary life that will escape its impact. Modern jet aircraft depends on a variety of sophisticated microprocessor systems for navigation, communication, passenger comfort and safety engine control and control of aerodynamic surfaces. In business offices among the first applications of computers involve the distribution and control of information. Desk-sized computers have become nearly as common as typewriters. They handle small, specialized data bases appropriate to each person's job as well as accounting information and personal data. Computers are being used as part of educational process. Guidance and control computers have made possible automated factories. They can also be expanded to serve specialized control functions in the area of industrial tools and machinery. Microcomputers have made possible a new generation of "intelligent" robot arms and hands capable of factory assembly operation. In the home they have already appeared in a host of video games and such household appliances as microwave ovens and food blenders. They will rapidly be extended to temperature controls, refrigerators, telephones, solar-energy systems and to fire - and burglary-alarm systems. HAND-HELD COMPUTER One of the Japanese companies has begun manufacturing the world's first all-purpose hand-held computer. This machine is like a translator device but it makes use of several attachments: those now of the drawing board include a mini-printer that effectively turns the translator into a typewriter, a video screen that can make the machine function as a miniature computer-display terminal and a voice synthesizer so that users can hear as well as see the information stored in the machine. The computer applications become broader, extending to home accounting, telephone and address filling and even device is a new memory bank. This machine will be available for export sometime in future years. 8. IN THE BANK (after A. Hailey) In a large, dimly lighted room with acoustic walls and ceilings to deaden sound, about fifty operators - predominantly women - are sitting at a battery of monitors with a keyboard beneath each. It is here that holders of the blue, green and gold credit cards are given or refused credit. When a card is presented anywhere in payment for goods or services, the place of business can accept the card without a question if the amount is below an agreed limit, usually between twenty-five and fifty dollars. For a larger purchase, authorization is needed, though it takes only second to obtain. The approval procedures move at jet speed. From wherever thy are, merchants and others dial directly to the credit card processing, centre of the bank. Automatically each call is routed to a free operator, whose first words are, "What is your merchant number?" As soon as the answer has been given, the operator types the figures, which appear simultaneously on the monitor. Next credit being sought. They are also typed and displayed. The operator presses the key, feeding the information to a computer, which instantly signals "accepted" or "declined". The first means that credit is good and the purchase has been approved, the second the cashholder is delinquent and credit has been cut off. The operator informs the merchant, the computer records the transaction. On a normal day fifteen thousand calls come in. Sometimes a monitor flashes a message from the computer - "stolen card". In this situation an operator, speaking calmly, as trained, has to answer, "The card presented to you has been reported as stolen. If possible, detain the person presenting it and call police. Retain the card. The bank will pay you thirty dollars reward for its return". Store keepers are usually pleased at the prospect to get an easy thirty dollars. For the bank it is also a good deal, since the card, left in circulation, can be used fraudulently for a much greater total amount. But this system works well only when the bank has got the information and can program the computer. Unfortunately most of the defrauding happens before a missing card is reported. To avoid this the computer also warns the operators about excessive purchasing: when a cardholder makes ten or more purchases during a single day, the computer alerts an operator. Since an ordinary cardholder never makes more than six or eight purchases a day, a card showing more than normal use may be fraudulent, even though the owner might be unaware of its loss. However, despite all the warning systems, a lost or stolen card, if used cautiously, is still good for twenty thousand dollars' worth of fraudulent purchases in the week or so during which most stolen cards stayed unreported. Moreover, there are devices used by criminals to decide whether a stolen card can be used again or if it is hot. A favorite is to pay a waiter twenty-five dollars to check a card out. He can get the answer easily by consulting a weekly confidential a weekly confidential warning list issued by the credit card company to merchants and restaurants. 9.KINDS OF PROGRAMS There are two main kinds of programs which are subdivided as well. They are control programs and system service programs. Control Programs There are some control programs handle interruptions, I/O operations, transition between different jobs and different phases of the same job, initial program loading (IPL), and symbolic assignment of I/O devices. Actually, the control program consists of three components:
The control program is a large program occupying thousands of bytes. It is usually stored on a magnetic tape or a magnetic disk. The particular unit on which the program resides is called the System Resident unit. System Service Programs. They are used to maintain the library: to place new programs into the library, to delete, replace, or change existing programs, to read programs from the library into memory, to link segments of programs written at different times into one program, etc. They art called Librarian and Linkage Editor. There are three libraries maintained by the Librarian program: 1) Core Image library, 2) Relocatable library, 3) Source Statement library. The core image programs includes the processors and control programs and as many of the application programs as the user desires. The relocatable library contains modules which are stored in such a way that each module can b arbitrarily relocated and still be executed correctly. A module may be a complete program or it may be a relatively independent part of a larger program. The source statement library contains macro definitions, a sort of collection of standard type statements which can be incorporated into a program to provide some special functions. 10.THE INTERNET The Internet, a global computer network which embraces millions of users all over the world, began in the United States in 1969 as a military experiment. It was designed to survive a nuclear war. Information sent over the Internet takes the shortest path available from one computer to another. Because of this, any two computers on the Internet will be able to stay in touch with each other as long as there is a single route between them. This technology is called packet swishing. Owing to this technology, if some computers on the network are knocked out, information will just route around them. One such packet swishing network already survived a war. It was the Iraqi computer network which was not knocked out during the Culf War. Most of the Internet host computers (more than 50 %) are in the United States, while the rest are located in more than 100 other countries. Although the number of host computers can be counted fairly accurately, nobody knows exactly how many people use the Internet, there are millions, and their number is growing by thousands each mouth worldwide. The most popular Internet service is e-mail. Most of the people, who have access to the Internet, use the network only for sending and receiving e-mail messages. However, other popular services are available on the Internet: reading USENET News, using the World-Wide Web, telnet, FTP, and Gopher. In many developing countries the Internet may provide businessmen with a reliable alternative to the expensive and unreliable telecommunications systems of these countries. Commercial users can communicate over the Internet with the rest of the world and can do it very cheaply. When they send e-mail messages, they only have to pay for phone calls to their local service providers, not calls across their countries or around the world. But who pays for sending e-mail messages over the Internet long distances, around the world? The answer is very simple: an user pays his/her service provider a monthly or hourly fee. Path of this fee goes towards its costs to connect to a large service provider. And path of the fee got by the larger provider goes to cover its cost of running a worldwide network of wires and wireless stations. But saving money is only the first step. If people see that they can make money from the Internet, commercial use of this network will drastically increase. For example, some western architecture companies and garment center already transmit their basic design and concepts over the Internet into China, where they are reworked and refined by skilled - but inexpensive - Chinese computer - aided - design specialists. However, some problems remain. The most important is security. When you send an e-mail message to somebody, this message can travel through many different networks and computers. The data are constantly being directed towards its destination by special computers called routers. Because of this, it is possible to get into any of computers along the route, intercept and even change the data being sent over the Internet. In spite of the fact that there are many strong encoding programs available, nearly all the information being sent over the Internet is transmitted without any form of encoding, i.e. "in the clear". But when it becomes necessary to send important information over the network, these encoding programs may be useful. Some American banks and companies even conduct transaction over the Internet. However, there are still both commercial and technical problems which will take time to be resolved. Деловая переписка Уважаемые Господа, – Dear Sirs, Мы получили Ваше письмо от... –We have received your letter of... Благодарим за письмо от... – We thank you for your letter of... Ваше письмо с предложением (с указанием, с просьбой о...) рассмотрено – Your letter enclosing (stating that..., asking us to do..., requesting us to do..., has been considered (given proper attention) В ответ на Ваше письмо от... – In reply (In response) to your letter of... В подтверждение нашего (их) телефонного разговора (переговоров, состоявшихся в...) сообщаем, что... – In confirmation of our (their) telephone conversation (talks, held in...) we wish to inform you that...) Ссылаясь на наше письмо от ... сообщаем, что... – With reference to (Referring to) our letter of...we wish to inform you that... Вновь ссылаясь на... – With further reference to... Рады сообщить Вам, что... – We are pleased (We are glad) to inform you that... We have pleasure in informing you that... К сожалению, вынуждены напомнить Вам, что... – We are sorry (We regret) to have to remind you that... Из Вашего письма мы узнали, что... – We learn from your letter that… В связи с нашим письмом от... и в подтверждение телеграммы от... – In connection with our letter of... and in confirmation of your cable of... Просим извинения за некоторую задержку с ответом на Ваше письмо – We offer apologies for the delay in answering your letter Пожалуйста, примите наши извинения за... –We apologize for... Please accept our apologies for... Мы с сожалением узнали из Вашего письма от..., что... – We regret (We are sorry) to learn from your letter of... that... К сожалению, мы не можем удовлетворить вашу просьбу о... – We are sorry we are unable to meet your request... Мы с удивлением узнали из Вашего телекса... – We are surprised to learn from your telex… В дополнение к нашему письму от... – Further to our letter of... Мы вынуждены напомнить Вам, что... – We have to remind you that... Имеем удовольствие предложить Вам... –We have pleasure in offering you... Вам, несомненно, известно, что... – You are no doubt aware that… Очевидно, Вам известно, что – You may know that... Прилагаем копию письма фирмы... по поводу (в связи с…) – We enclose (are enclosing) a copy of a letter from... about... (in connection with...) Просим принять во внимание (учесть), что... – Please note that... |
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