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Примерные темы сочинений, докладов, рефератов, проектов.

“Что надо и не надо делать в поисках работы”
Структура делового письма
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Жизнеописание (Curriculum vitae(CV))
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Различия в американской и английской деловой терминологии
Основные сокращения, используемые в деловой корреспонденции
Net Slang
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A letter of application for a part-time job
A list of tips on how to prepare for a job interview
A first job interview
Business correspondence
E-male message
Job requirements
Job profiles
Advertisement design
Advantages and disadvantages of working in a place where food is either prepared, sold or served
Positive and negative aspects of a career in modeling
In what ways can working as a tour guide be enjoyable or difficult?
Проект “Выбор профессии”
Проект “Карта характерологических особенностей и умений для выбора профессий”
Проект “Портфолио выпускника”

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1. Types of Businesses in the U.K.

Most businesses in the United Kingdom operate in one of the following ways:

sole trader
partnership
limited liability company
branch of a foreign company

The sole trader is the oldest form of business. There are many one-man owners, for example: a farmer, a doctor, a solicitor, an estate agent, a jobber, a builder, a hairdresser etc.

The partnership is a firm where there are a few partners. They are firms of solicitors, architects, auditors, management consultants etc. The names of all the partners of the firm are printed on the stationery of a partnership.

The most common type of company in the U.K. is the limited liability company. At the end of the name of such a company the word Ltd. is used. For example: Wilson and Son Ltd.

Many of such companies are joint-stock companies owned by shareholders.

Limited liability companies are divided into public and private ones. Only public companies may offer shares to the public at the stock exchange. The names of such companies end in p.l.c. which stands for public limited company.

For example: John and Michael p.l.c.

Private limited companies may not offer shares to the public. The names of such companies end simply in Ltd.

A branch of a foreign company in a part of a company incorporated outside Great Britain but acting under the law of the U.K. Usually these companies act in, the U.K. under their normal foreign names.

2. Forms of businesses in the U.S.A.

Businesses in the U.S.A. may be organized as one of the following forms:

individual business;
general partnership;
limited partnership;
corporation;
alien corporation.

An individual business is owned by one person.

A general partnership has got several owners. They all are liable for debts and they share in the profits.

A limited partnership has got at least one general owner and one or more other owners. They have only a limited investment and a limited liability.

A corporation is owned by persons, called stockholders. The stockholders usually have certificates showing the number of shares which they own. The stockholders elect a director or directors to operate the corporation. Most corporations are closed corporations, with only a few stockholders. Other corporations are owned by many stockholders who buy and sell their shares at will. Usually they have little interest in management of the corporations.

Alien corporations are corporations of foreign countries.

All the corporations are to receive their charters from the state authorities. The charters state all the powers of the corporations. Many corporations try to receive their charters from the authorities of the State of Delaware, though they operate in other states. They prefer the State of Delaware because the laws are liberal there and the taxation is rather low. Such corporations, which receive their charters from an outside state are called foreign corporations.

All the corporations require a certificate to do business in the state where they prefer to operate.

3. FOREIGN TRADE

In the realm of foreign commerce, the US led the world in the value of imports in 1986, and was second only to the Federal Republic of Germany in the value of exports. Exports of domestic merchandise, raw materials, agricultural and industrial products, and military goods amounted in 1985 to nearly $207 billion. One rapidly growing export category was computers, which rose from $1.2 billion in 1970 to $13.8 in 1985, grain exports rose from $2.6 to $11.25 in 1985.

From the value of combined exports and imports, the largest proportion of US foreign trade is with the nations of the Western Hemisphere. Canada is the nation's single best customer and supplier.

The UK, the world's fourth-largest trading nation, is highly dependent on foreign trade. It must export almost all its copper, ferrous metals, lead, zinc, rubber, and raw cotton. Its exports, about 67 % of which are manufactured goods, account for more than 30 % of GDP (Gross Domestic Product).

Principal trade partners in 1986 were as follows: FRG, US, France.

4. WHAT IS COMPUTING?

1. Suppose you sit down with pencil and paper and centre your attention on adding a set of figures. You add first all the digits in the right-hand column, then all the digits in the next column, and so on—until you finally arrive at the answer. When you do this, you are computing.

When you stop at a street corner, looking first to the left for any coming car, then to the right, to cross the street or to wait on the sidewalk —you are computing.
When you are walking along a poorly marked path in the woods, thinking if you are really on the path or have lost it— you are computing.

4. When you are taking in information or data, performing reasonable operations (mathematical or logical operations) on the data, and are producing one or more answers— you are computing.

A machine can also do this. It can take in information or data perform a sequence of reasonable operations on the information which it has received, and put out answers. When it does this, it is computing.
A very simple example of a computer is the ordinary business-adding machine which prints on paper tape the number entered into its keyboard, and also prints a total when you press the total key. A complex example of a computer is a modern automatic digital computer which in each second can perform morethan100,000,000,000 additions, subtractions, multiplications, or divisions.
A computing machine can take in and store information because the hardware inside the machine expresses arithmetical and logical relations, such as adding or subtracting, comparing or selecting. A computer can also put out information; display the answers when it receives them. Hardware is useless without software which is computer instructions and programs.

8. The modem computers are of three kinds called analog, digital, and hybrid. An analog computer computes by using physical analogs of numerical measurements. A digital computer computes by using the numbers (digits) arid yeses and noes expressed usually in 1's and O's. A hybrid computer is a machine which combines some of the properties of digital and analog computers.

5. INFORMATION, MACHINE WORDS, INSTRUCTIONS, ADDRESSES AND REASONABLE OPERATIONS

Information is a set of marks or signs that have meaning. These consist of letters or numbers, digits or characters, typewriter signs, other kinds of signs, and so on. A computer reacts differently to different digits or characters, and reacts to them as units that have meaning. For example, information for an analog computer has to be in the form of distances, or rotations, or voltages, or other physical variables. And for a digital computer information has to be in the form of digits or numbers.
Any information may be represented by the binary system including two digits: one (1) and zero (0). Each 1 and 0 is a separate binary digit called a bit. A bit is the smallest part of information. Bits are typically grouped in units that are called bytes. A byte is the basic unit of information used in modern computers and consists of eight bits.

3. The bytes are handled usually in standard groups called machine words or just words. There are two basic types of information or words that can be put into a memory cell or location: words that are numerical quantities and words that are computer instructions. Regularly, an instruction to the machine is expressed as a word; and so the same set of characters may have meaning sometimes as a number, sometimes as an instruction. A speed of 96,000 characters per second is the same as a speed of 8,000 words per second. Most human beings could not take even 12- digit number per second.

Physically the set of bits is a set of arrangements of some physical equipment. One of the ways of storing information in a computer is storing by using a set of small magnetically polarized spots on a magnetic surface.
The computer is told what operations to perform by means of instructions. An instruction is a command to the computer. It consists of a verb (an operational code) and a noun (an operand). For example, if the computer is instructed "Add 365 the number of times stated in the register R", and if the register R stores the code for number 3, then the computer will perform that operation three times. An instruction word looks like a number, and there is no way to tell from the word itself whether it is a quantity or an instruction. The computer must be told exactly which address contains an instruction and which contains a quantity.
An address is the name of particular memory location or cell. Each memory location (word or byte) has its own unique address or number just like a post office box. For example, if the computer contains 100 memory cells, their respective addresses might be the numbers from I to 100 (or 0 through 99). And instead of saying "A word is in a memory cell", the computer personnel say, "The content of an address is a word."

7. Reasonable operations are mathematical and logical. Mathematical operations include arithmetic and algebraic operations. Arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, taking a square root, etc.; and algebraic operations are called raising to a power as well as differentiating and integrating.

8. Logical operations include comparing, selecting, sorting, matching, etc. These are operations which may be performed either on numbers, or on expressions consisted of letters such as ordinary words. A very important logical operation performed by a computer is determining, i.e., which of two operations is to be performed next.

6. Text A.MEMORY OR STORAGE UNIT

1. The part of a digital computer which stores information is called storage or memory. The computer's memory stores the numbers to be operated on; it stores intermediate results that are generated during the course of a computation; and it stores the final results. The instructions themselves are also stored in the computer's memory.

2. There are two important factors about the memory I unit: an access time and a capacity. The time required to I transmit one computer word out of the memory to where it will be used is called the memory access time; it usually amounts to a few millionths of a second or less in modem fast computers. The speed of modern computers is the speed of access to their memories. The capacity of a computer is the quantity of data that its memory unit can hold.

3. There are many ways of memorizing information in memory cells of a digital computer. External memory or storage units may use magnetic tapes, magnetic drums, magnetic disks and floppy disks. The magnetic dram and magnetic disk are called a Direct Access, or Random Access, Storage Device (DASD).

4. The magnetic disk is very similar to the magnetic drum but is based upon the use of a flat disk with a series of concentric circles of magnetizable material, one read/write head being for each concentric circle, i.e., for each track. Memory units on magnetic disks may store more than 100,000,000 bytes.

5. Internal or main memory units were constructed of magnetic cores about 8 hundredths of an inch in diameter, each core storing one 'yes' or 'no', that is, each core representing one bit of information.

6. Information that is stored inside a computer is stored in registers, electronic units of hardware in which the positioning of physical objects stores information. Each register holds one machine word consisting usually of 32 bits or 4 bytes. Registers hold information temporarily during processing. The slower models of registers use magnetic cores; the faster models use special electronic circuits or film memory devices.

7. Usually the registers are of three types:

General-Purpose Registers are sixteen registers, each being able to contain one word. These registers are used for storing the integer operands taking part in binary arithmetic operations.
Floating-Point Registers are four registers, each being able to contain a double word. These registers hold the operands taking part in arithmetic operations on floating-point numbers.
Control Registers form a group of registers differing from one model to another.

8. The development of semiconductor integration technology has led to creation of memories on LSI circuits. For constructing memory units on LSI circuits either bipolar or MOS memory are used. The access time of bipolar memory is about 100 nanoseconds, while the access time of MOS memory is 500 nanoseconds. But on the other hand the density of memorizing elements allocation in the latter is very high and amounts to 4 thousand memorizing elements for one chip. The latest achievement of modern electronics is creation of memories on electronic circuits made by spraying layers of different memorizing materials.

9. Nowadays the main memory RAM which is regularly used in microcomputers can accept new instructions or information from a peripheral device. Terms synonymous with the computer are working memory RAM are: core, core storage, and main memory, main storage, primary storage, read / write memory. Other memories, such as ROM or PROM, which are used in microcomputers as well s store instructions or information permanently. ROM, PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM are all together called firmware which is 'hard' software.
Text B.THE FLOPPY DISKS

Floppy disks are a magnetic storage medium which can be recorded, erased and used over and over again. Floppy disks are flexible plastic disks which have several standard sizes. Full size floppy disks are 8 inches in diameter; minifloppy disks are 5 inches in diameter. Both foil size floppy disks and minifloppy disks are housed in a paper-like plastic envelope, usually black, and remain in the envelope at all times.

Microfloppy disks are in sizes from 3 to 4 inches. They are housed in a rigid plastic shell of different design. The number of bytes that can be recorded on a floppy disk are about 80,000 to 1,000,000 and more. Floppy disks are used extensively in personal computers, small business computers, word processing, etc.

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