LONDON (3)
London is the capital of Great Britain, its political, economic and commercial centre. It is one of the largest cities in the world and the largest city in Europe. Its pop ulation is about 8 million. London is situated on the river Thames. The city is very old. It has more than 20 centuries old history. Tra ditionally it is divided into several parts, the City, West minster, the West End and the East. End. They are very different from each other. The City is the oldest part of London, its financial and business centre. Numerous banks, offices and firms are concentrated here. Few people live in the City but over a million come to work here. There are two places of inter est in the City: St. Paul's Cathedral and the Tower of London. St. Paul's Cathedral was built in the 17th cen tury by the architect Christopher Wren. The Tower of London was built in the 15th century. It was used as a fortress, a palace and a prison. Now it's a museum. Westminster is the aristocratic official part of London. There is BuckinghamPalace where the Queen Lives and the Houses of Parliament along the north bank of the Thames. The clock tower of the Houses of Parliament is famous for its big hour bell known as «Big Ben». Westminster Abbey is the place where the coronation of nearly all kings and queens has taken place. Many of them are buried here as well as some other famous people of the country. The West End is the richest and most beautiful part of London. The best hotels, restaurants, shops, clubs, parks and houses are situated there. There are many tour ists there from different countries of the world. Trafalgar Square is the geographical centre of Lon don; it was named in the memory of Admiral Nelson's victory in the battle of Trafalgar in 1805. The tall Nel son's Column stands in the middle of the square. The East End is an industrial district of London. There are many factories there. The region is densely populat ed by working class families.
IN THE WORLD OF ARTS (4)
People cannot live without music. They listen to music, they dance to music, they learn to play musical instruments. Some of them are fond of pop-music, others prefer jazz, and still others listen only to classical music. As for me, I like both pop-music and classical music. My favorite composer is Sergey Prokofiev. He was born in 1891, and when he was six, he began composing music. When he was thirteen, he entered the St. Petersburg Conservatoire where his teachers were such famous musicians as N.Rimsky - Korsakov and A.Liadov. He played his works for the first time at a concert in St. Petersburgwhen he was seventeen, and two years later at a concert in Moscow. Prokofiev composed music to such famous ballets as "Romeo and Juliet" and "Cinderella", to the opera "War and Peace". He wrote seven symphonies. His sixth and seventh symphonies are known all over the world. Besides, he wrote nine sonatas, many songs and different pieces far the piano. Prokofiev died in 1953. But thousands of people all over the world still enjoy his wonderful music. As fords other kinds of arts, I like painting very much. Some time ago I watched a good TV programmer about English painters. Some portraits attracted my attention. They were painted by the famous English artist Joshua Reynolds. He was born in England, but spent much time in Italy where he studied art. He became a famous portrait painter. People liked his portraits very much. In 1768 Reynolds became the first president of the Royal Academy of Arts. He made a whole gallery of portraits of the most famous people of his time - writers, scientists and actors.
THE SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN (5)
The system of education in any country is aimed at developing a personality for the good of the individual and society as a whole. Pre-school education in England begins at the age of 3 or 4. Around half of the children at this age attend nursery schools or playgroups mostly organized by parents. Children of this age need care as well as education. That's why kids play a lot, learn to listen attentively and to behave. Compulsory primary education begins at the age of five in England , Wales and Scotland and at four in Northern Ireland .Children start their school career in an in fan school. Lessons start at 9a.m. and are over at 4 p.m. They are taught «3R's»: Reading, writing, arithmetic. Pupils have a lot of fun at school, drawing, reading, dancing or singing. When they are 7 pupils move to a junior school, which lasts four years till they are 11. They study a lot of subjects: English, Mathematics, Science, History, and Geography along with Technology, Music, Art and Physical education. Most of children (over 90 per cent) go to state schools where education is free. Only a small proportion of them attend private (Public) or independent schools. The fees are high and only some families can afford it. So such schools are for the representatives of the high class of England. The most notable Public schools are Eton, Harrow, Winchester, Rugby. Secondary education begins at 11. The majority of secondary schools are Comprehensive schools where boys and girls study together. Besides, parents can take their sons and daughters to Grammar schools or Secondary Modem Schools. Grammar schools provide an academic course from 11 to 18. They prepare pupils for colleges and universities? Many children of working class families go to Modern schools. They give a very limited education. Pupils get instruction in woodwork, metalwork, sewing, shorthand, typing and cooking. After finishing such a school a pupil becomes an unskilled worker. The Comprehensive Schools have their own "Modern classes" classes and "Grammar school". Every pupil has to choose a set of subjects to learn. If he takes up Art he will study English Literature, Music, Art, Drama and foreign languages. If he is good at exact and natural sciences, he will learn Science: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Geography, Economics and Technical Drawing. The British government encourages careers education in the country. That's why secondary schools try to break down the barriers between education and business. They set up close links with firms their students to take part in business activities. At around 16 years old teenagers take some exams and coursework to get General Certificate of Education. Those who choose to stay on at school usually study for two further years to pass a level (Advanced level) exam. These exams will give them a chance to enter the university.
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (6)
The USA is one of the largest countries in the world. It is situated in the central part of the North American continent. The area of the USA is over nine million aquaria kilometers. Its oceans are the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic. The population of the United States is nearly 250 million people. Most of people live in towns. People of different nationalities live in the USA. There are a lot of rich people in the USA but the life of many colored people is very difficult. Some Americans live in poverty and some people can't get work. The official language of the country is English. The capital of the country is Washington. It was named in honor of the first President, George Washington. As the USA is a large country, the climate is different in different regions. For example, the Pacific coast is a region of mild winters and warm, dry summers but the eastern continental region has a rainy ciliate. The region around the Great Lakes changeable weather. There are many mountains in the USA. For example, the highest peak in the Cordeliers in the USA is 4,418 meters. The country's main river is the Mississippi but there are many other great rivers in the USA: the Colorado in the south and the Columbia in the north-west. There are five Great Lakes between the USA and Canada. The USA produces more that 52 per cent of the world's corn, wheat, cotton and tobacco. There are many big cities in the country. They are Washington (the capital of the country), New York (the city of contrasts and the financial and business centre of the USA), Boston (which has there universities), Chicago (one of the biggest industrial cities in the USA), San Francisco, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Detroit (one of the biggest centers of the automobile industry) and Hollywood (the centre of the US film industry). The USA has an Academy of Sciences. There are many scientific institutions, museums, libraries, theatres and other interesting places in the USA. It is a highly developed industrial country .The USA is rich in mineral resources, such as aluminum, salt, zinc, coppers, and others. The country is rich in coal, natural gas, gold and silver, too. It holds one of the first places in the world for the production of coal, iron, oil and natural gas. Such industries as machine-building and ship-building are highly developed there. American agriculture produces a lot of food products: grain, fruit and vegetables. The USA is a federal republic, consisting of fifty states. Each of these states has its own government. Congress is the American parliament which consists of two Chambers. The president is the head of the state and the government. He is elected for four years. There are two main political parties in the USA. They are the Democratic Party (organized in the 1820s) and the Republican Party (organized in the 1850s).
MOSCOW LOMONOSOV UNIVERSITY (7)
MoscowLomonosovUniversity is the largest university of Russia. When K was founded in 1755 it was the University of Moscow with three faculties. Today with 21 faculties and over 30,900 students, MoscowLomonosovUniversity ranks among the top universities of the world. There are over 5,000 Professors, Associate Professors and lecturers at the University. There are also over 140 full members and cor responding members of the RussianAcademy of Sciences there. The foundation of MoscowUniversity was inspired by the radical philosophical and political views of Michael Lomono sov (1711 - 1765). The University was established by the order of Elizabeth 1, the Russian Empress. In the late 18-th century MoscowUniversity became the centre of advanced Russian science and social thought. Moscow Lomonosov University is known world-wide for its academic excellence. MoscowLomonosovUniversity, the largest educational institution in Russia teaches almost in all subject areas: Arts, Sciences, Law, Engineering, etc. The staffs are knowledgeable in their subject the top re search institutions of MoscowLomonosovUniversity enable, to keep research and teaching up to date. Here students can learn skills which fit them for a better career. MoscowLomonosovUniversity reputation stays with its graduates -and their achievements in turn add to that reputation.
The Internet (8)
The Internet, a global computer network which embraces millions of users all over the world, began in the United States in 1969 as a military experiment. It was designed to survive a nuclear war. Information sent over the Internet takes the shortest path available from one computer to another. Because of this, any two computers on the Internet will be able to stay in touch with each other as long as there is a single route between them. This technology is called packet swishing. Owing to this technology, if some computers on the network are knocked out (by a nuclear explosion, for example), information will just route around them. One such packet-switching network already survived a war. It was the Iraqi computer network which was not knocked out during the Gulf War. Most of the Internet host computers (more than 50 %) are in the United States, while the rest ape located in more than 100 other countries. Although the number of host computers can be counted fairly accurately, nobody knows exactly how many people use the Internet, there are millions, and their number is growing by thousands each month worldwide. The most popular Internet service is e-mail. Most of the people, who have access to the Internet, use the network only for sending and receiving e-mail messages. However, other popular services are available on the Internet: reading USENET News, using the World-Wide Web, telnet, FTP, and Gopher. In many developing countries the Internet may provide businessmen with a reliable alternative to the expensive and unreliable telecommunications systems of these countries. Commercial, users can communicate over the Internet with the rest of the world and can do it very cheaply. When they send e-mail messages, they only have to pay for phone calls to their local service providers, not for calls across their countries or around the world. But who actually pays for sending e-mail messages over the Internet long distances, around the world? The answer is very simple: a user pays his/her service provider a monthly or hourly fee. Part of this fee goes towards its costs to connect to a larger service provider. And part of the fee got by the larger provider goes to cover its cost of running a worldwide network of wires and wireless stations. But saving money is only the first step. If people see that they can make money from the Internet, commercial use of this network will drastically increase. For example, some western architecture companies and garment centers already transmit their basic designs and concepts over the Internet into China, where they are reworked and refined by skilled - but inexpensive - Chinese computer-aided-design specialists. However, some problems remain. The most important is security. When you send an e-mail message to somebody, this message can travel through many different networks and computers. The data are constantly being directed towards its destination by special computers called routers. Because of this, it is possible to get into any of computers along the route, intercept and even change the data being sent over the Internet. In spite of the fact that there are many strong encoding programs available, nearly all the information being sent over the Internet is transmitted without any form of encoding, i.e. "in the clear". But when it becomes necessary to send important information over the network, these encoding programs may be useful. Some American banks and companies even conduct transactions over the Internet. However, there are still both commercial and technical problems which will take time to be resolved.
The Twentieth Century (9)
The 20th century began slowly, to the ticking of grandfather clocks and the stately rhythms of progress. Thanks to science, industry and moral philosophy, mankind's steps had at last been guided up the right path. The century of steam was about to give way to the century of oil and electricity. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, only 41 years old in 1900, proposed a scientific basis for the notion that progress was gradual but inevitable, determined by natural law. And everybody thought that the development would continue in the small steps that had marked the progress of the 19th century. Inventions like the railroad or the telegraph or the typewriter had enabled people to get on with their ordinary lives a little more conveniently. No one could have guessed then that, in the century just beginning, new ideas would burst upon the world with a force and frequency that would turn this stately march of progress into a long-distance, free-for-all sprint. Thrust into this race, the children of the 20th century would witness more change in their daily existence and environment than anyone else who had ever walked the planet. This high-velocity attack of new ideas and technologies seemed to ratify older dreams of a perfectible life on earth, of an existence in which the shocks of nature had been tamed. But the unleashing of unparalleled progress was also accompanied by something quite different: a massive regression toward savagery. If technology endowed humans with Promethean aspirations and powers, it also gave them the means to exterminate one another. Assassinations in Sarajevo in 1914 lit a spark that set off an unprecedented explosion of destruction and death. The Great War did more than devastate a generation of Europeans. It set the tone - the political, moral and intellectual temper - for much that followed. Before long the Great War received a new name - World War I. The roaring 1920s and the Depression years of the 1930s proved to be merely a prelude to World War П. Largely hidden during that war was an awful truth that called into question progress and the notion of human nature itself. But civilization was not crushed by the two great wars, and the ruins provided the stimulus to build a way of life again. To a degree previously unheard of and perhaps unimaginable, the citizens of the 20th century felt free to reinvent themselves. In that task they were assisted by two profound developments - psychoanalysis and the Bomb.
Контрольная работа №2 для гуманитарных специальностей
Номер студенческого билета
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Номер выполняемого варианта
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№ 1, 11, 21, 31, 41
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Первый
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№ 2, 12, 22, 32, 42
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Второй
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№ 3, 13, 23, 33, 43
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Третий
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№ 4, 14, 24, 34, 44
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Четвертый
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№ 5, 15, 25, 35, 45
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Пятый
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№ 6, 16, 26, 36, 46
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Шестой
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№ 7, 17, 27, 37, 47
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Первый
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№ 8, 18, 28, 38, 48
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Второй
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№ 9, 19, 29, 39, 49
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Третий
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№ 10, 20, 30, 40, 50
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Четвертый
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№ 1.
Составьте и напишите предложения, обращая внимание на порядок слов.
1. Is, best, she, friend, my.
2. Learn, different, students, our, subjects.
3. The, is, Russia, of, the, in, country, the, largest, world.
4. In, the, we, city, live, a, flat, in, of, center, the.
5. Reading, is, my, of, best, son's, fond, friend.
№ 2.
Заполните пропуски нужной формой глагола tobeи переведите.
1. Не... born in 1985. 2. We... students now. 3. We... good friends at the college. 4. It... an interesting book. 5. Who... absent today? 6. He... a student. 7. What... he? 8.... hea doctor? 9. These... my pencils. 10. Where... this book? It... on the table. 11. What... their names? 12. Mary... a girl. 13. Who... he? 14. What... you? 15. This man... in the room. 16. How... she? 17. How...you? I... fine. 18. How... your friend? 19 ... he your son? 20. Tomorrow we... at home. 21 …. you a sportsman? 22. There... no book on the table. 23. It... my parents' car. 24. . There... 15 students in our group now.
№ 3.
Напишитецифрами:
1) Fifteen twenty one; 2) the eleventh of March; 3) two fifths; 4) seventeen point four two; 5) eighteen hundred five; 6) a (one) sixth; 7) one tenth; 8) the first of Janu ary; 9) sixteen thirty three; 10) naught point two four.
№ 4.
Вставьте артикли a, an,the гденеоб ходимо:
1. What... fine day it is today! 2.... History and ... Computer Science were ... my favorite subjects at... school. 3. I don't know ... way to... station. 4. He is... engineer by... profession. 5. Usually I get up at ... 7 o'clock in... morning. 6.... Rostov is on... right bank of... Don. 7. Will you have... cup of... tea? 8. ...Warsaw is ... capital of Poland. 9. We shall go to...cinema together with... our friends. 10. This is... book,... book is very interesting. 11. Do you see... sun in...sky today? 12. He is... engineer by... profession. 13.I went to... Smirnovs, but they were not at... home.
№ 5.
Употребите соответствующий предлог (движения, места, направления).
(Above, across, around, at, behind, from, in front of, in, into, on, out of, over, through, to, under)
1. There is a garden... our house. 2. The bridge is... the river. 3. All students are... the lesson now. 4. Where are the boys? They are... the park. 5. Our flat is... the center. 6. There was a lamp... the table. 7. He will sit... you. 8. Usually we go... the college together. 9. He came... the house. 10. I come home... school very late. 11. Take my book... him, please. 12. Come... the room. 13. He took us... the forest. 14. Children, take your books... your bags and put them... the tables. 15. The box was... the bed. 16. He looks ... the window.
№ 6.
Поставьте к следующим предложени ям вопросы:
общие
специальные
разделительные
1. There is a book on the table. 2. He must work hard today. 3. We are leaving for Moscow next week. 4. We were reading the whole evening. 5. They don't go to work on Sunday. 6. It is not cold today. 7. Ann has already be gun to read a new book. 8. We learn English at school. 9. They will show you how to get there.
№ 7.
Вставьтеsomebody, anybody, nobody илиeverybody.
1.The question is so difficult that... can answer it. 2.... left his bag in our classroom yesterday.
3. Has... in this group got a dictionary? 4. It is too late. I think there is... in the office now. 5. ... knows that plants like water. 6. Is there... here who knows English? 7. You must find... who can help you. 8.... knew anything about our home task. 9. The question is very easy can answer this ques tion. 10. There is... in the next room. I don't know him. 11. Please, tell us the story. ... knows it. 12. Is there... you want to tell me? 13. Has... heregotaredpencil?
№ 8.
Определите временную форму гла голов и переведите на английский язык.
1. Вчера в 9 часов вечера я смотрел телевизор. 2. Она сказала, что еще не выполнила домашнее задание. 3. Когда пришел мой друг, я еще завтракал. 4. Когда я встретил ее впервые, она работала в школе. 5. Все студенты выполнили задание после того, как препо даватель рассказал им, как его делать. 6. Когда мы вышли на улицу, ярко светило солнце. 7. Мой друг сказал, что его брат уже приехал. 8. Я читал книгу, когда услышал телефонный звонок. 9. После того, как врач осмотрел (toexamine) больного, он поговорил с его родственниками, 10. Когда мы пришли на останов ку (busstop), автобус уже ушел. 11. Он смотрел теле визор, когда пришел его друг. 12. Почтальон обычно приходит в девять часов утра. Сейчас уже половина десятого, а он все еще не пришел. 13. Каждый вечер я смотрю телевизор. 14. Служащие (theclerks) заканчи вают работу в шесть часов вечера. 15. Разве она не зна ла об этом? 16. Разве вы не видели этот фильм? 17. Она еще не брала своего маленького сына в театр. 18. Он обычно очень внимательно слушает учителя, но сей час он не слушает, у него болит голова. 19. Я не играл в футбол с прошлого года. 20. Маленькая девочка часто помогает своей матери. 21. Автор (author) еще (still) молодой человек. Он написал свою первую книгу в 1989 году. 22. Сейчас 8 часов утра и ребенок уже про снулся. Вчера утром он проснулся раньше. 23. В шко ле он играл в футбол.
№ 9.
Поставьте глаголы в нужную времен ную форму, соблюдая правило согласования времен. Переведитепредложения.
1.I did not know that you already (to read) this book 2. He did it better than we (to expect). 3. He said that the bus (to be) here soon. 4. He told us that he (to do) this work himself 5. They decided that they (to bring) us all the books we need. 6. He said that he (can) not do it with out my help. 7. I decided that next year I (to go) to the Black Sea coast. 8. It was decided that we (to begin) our work at eight o'clock. 9.I told them that I (to leave) for Minsk next day. 10. The boy did not know that he already (to receive) a good mark. 11. The students wanted to know when they (to pass) their examinations. 12. We saw that our teacher just (to go out) and he (to come back) soon. 13. He said we (may) keep the books as long as we (to like). 14. We knew that he not (to be able) to make his work in time and (to decide) to help him. 15. We understood at once that this control work (to be) a difficult one.
№ 10.
Раскройте скобки, поставьте глаго лы в нужные формы страдательного залога.
1. I'm not reading these books today. They (return) to the library. 2. The paintings (exhibit) till the end of the month. 3. Why your home task (not do)? 4. The patient (take) to the hospital today, and (operate) tomorrow morning. 5. This room (use) only on special occasions. 6. Bicycles must not (leave) here. 7. This newspaper (not read) because the pages (not cut). 8. Dictionaries may not (use) at the examination. 9. Usually the floor (sweep) every day, but it (not sweep) yesterday. 10. This book (leave) in the classroom yesterday. 11. Thousands of new houses (build) every year. 12. This room (not use) for a long time. 13. The children (take) to the circus tomor row.
№ 11
Переведите на английский язык, ис пользуя модальные глаголы.
1. Мы обязательно должны писать диктант сегод ня? — Да, завтра мы будем учить новые слова. 2. Вче ра мне пришлось ответить на все эти письма. 3. Вик тора тоже пригласить на обед? — Да, сделайте это, пожалуйста. 4. Вам пришлось остаться дома, потому что была плохая погода? 5. Вы обязательно должны прийти и посмотреть нашу новую квартиру.— С удо вольствием. 6. Я рад, что мне не пришлось заканчи вать эту работу вчера. 7. Я не люблю поздно ложить ся спать, но иногда мне приходится. 8. Можно мне пойти погулять сейчас? — Нет, нельзя. Ты должен скоро ложиться спать. 9. Вам следует навестить ва шего друга. Он вчера не пришел на урок. 10. Почему ты не пришла? — Я не могла, я должна была помочь маме по дому. 11. Вам не нужно идти в библиотеку, у нас много книг дома, и вы можете взять любую, ка кую хотите.
№ 12.
Переведите на русский язык следу ющие предложения:
1. If I came later I would be late for the lesson. 2. If he had known the time-table he wouldn't have missed the train. 3. It would be better if you learned the oral topics. 3. I wish I had known this before the examination. 4. I would have come to you if you had not lived so far away. 5. If I had seen you yesterday I would have given you my text-book. 6. If I were in your place I wouldn't buy the tickets beforehand. 7. If I had known that you needed help I would have helped you.
Тексты для перевода
Вариант1:Small Business in the USA: An S-Corporation Is not always Best
It is generally believed that small companies should incorporate as S-corporations. While an S-corporation enjoys many corporate attributes (the main is that the owners of a corporation do not expose then personal assets to corporate liability), it is treated like a partnership for the purposes of determining its Federal income tax liability. At the end of each fiscal year, its total earnings (or losses) are prorated to each shareholder, and these earnings (or losses) are incorporated into then individual income tax returns.
Among the advantages of the S-corporation for small business is m "double taxation" — paying an income tax on corporate net income and then paying an individual income tax on the dividend income subsequently distributed by the corporation.
Thus, an S-corporation "generally will not be liable for federal income tax." If losses are incurred during the start-up period (or any other period), these losses can be deducted each year from the shareholders' tax returns. All income, losses, credits, and deductions are "washed through" the S-corporation at the end of each fiscal year, and tarried directly to the individual tax return for each shareholder. Being emptied out at the end of each fiscal year, the S-corporation has no retained earnings account.
For most small businesses, the S-corporation has long been the preferred corporate structure. The operational accounting is simpler, and accounting, legal, and administrative expenses are minimized. Shareholders receive the immediate benefits of earnings without "double taxation", and the shelter of tax deductive losses on their individual tax returns. There are sound reasons to state that this is generally the most popular corporate structure.
However, for small businesses that are growing rapidly, the conventional C-corporation status may turn out to be more preferable. The primary motivation for such a change would be the ability to retain and reinvest earnings in the expanding business.
The maximum Federal income tax rate for C-corporation is 34 percent for taxable income up to $10.0 million, whereas the maximum tax rate on S-corporation income is now the maximum individual rate of 59.6 percent. At the other end of the range, the Federal tax on corporate income of $100,000 is $22,250 for a C-corporation, whereas the incremental tax on this income added to other income of the shareholder in an S-corporation could be as high as $39,600 if the shareholders are already in the maximum tax bracket. If the business is striving to retain and reinvest all possible cash during a period of strong growth, it will obviously forgo distributing cash dividends thereby avoiding the problem of "double taxation."
The maximum tax will be effectively reduced by more than 16 percent, and substantial funds will then be retained to meet the capital needs of the expanding enterprise. Discounting the effects of depreciation charges, this shift of corporate structure yields almost a 10 percent increase in net cash flow.
Вариант 2:Consumer Rights
In their role as consumers, ordinary EU citizens are key players in the Union's new frontier-free single market. The Union has in fad incorporated, as the basis of its consumer policy, the protection of the five fundamental rights which lie at the heart of national policies. These are:
1. The protection of consumers' health and safety
Only products which will not endanger health or safety may be put on the market. This means setting safety requirements, providing full information about potential risks, and protecting consumers against physical injury.
2. The protection of consumers' economic interests
There is for example a general ban on misleading advertising and unfair terms in contracts with consumers.
3. Consumer rights to information and education Consumers need to be put in a position where they can make an informed choice among goods and services offered. This includes objective information on the features and price of the items available. Consumers also require proper information about their efficient and safe use.
4. The right to redress
Consumers have the right to receive advice and help when seeking redress for faulty products or for injury or damage resulting from the use of goods and services. There need to be simple, affordable and rapid procedures for settling complaints and claims.
5. Consumer representation and participation Representatives of consumers need to be present in decision-taking procedures on issues of concern to them at local, national or EU level. At Union level, this covers not only specific consumer issues but also other relevant policy areas like food laws, transport, competition policy, financial services, and environment.
When the Community (the former name of European Union) adopted its first consumer programme in 1975, it focused on the practical application of the five principles. The first result was a number of directives which were adopted over the next 10 years covering among other things the safety of cosmetic products, the labeling of foodstuff, misleading advertising, consumer rights in door-step selling, product liability and the provision of consumer credit.
In addition to its programme of legislation on consumer protection, the Union took steps to make sure the interests of consumers are taken into account at local and EU level. It has supported the development of national consumer organizations and of five major EU-wide organizations with consumer interests. These are:
— The European Consumer's Organization (BEUC),
— The Confederation of Family Organizations in the European Union (Coface),
— The European Community of Consumer Cooperatives Eurocoop),
— The European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC), and
— The European Interregional Institute for Consumer Affairs EIICA)
Internally, the European Commission created an independent Consumer Policy Service in 1989 in order to give more authority and a higher profile to the implementation of consumer policy.
According to the data of 1991, nearly 64 % of Community GDP (внутреннийнациональныйпродукт) is devoted to private consumption, the highest proportion being 70.3 % in Greece and the lowest 52.5 % in Denmark (63.4 % in UK). The remainder of the GDP is devoted mainly to financing investments and the collective consumption of general government.
On average, Europeans devote 20 % of their 'consumption' bud to food (ranging from 37.8 % in Greece to 16.6 % in Germany, 21.5 in UK) whereas 17.2 % covers housing expenditure (27.8 % Denmark as against 10.3 % in Portugal, 18.5 % in UK). There are also marked disparities in spending on leisure and education (4.3 % Luxembourg compared with 10.5 % in Ireland, with a UK average 9.7 %).
There is plenty to be done, even after the legislative programme out in the Maastricht Treaty on European Union is completed. The single market, like any other, needs to balance the interests of buyers and sellers if it is to operate efficiently. This means not only fixing additional rules for consumer protection but also ensuring that existing are applied correctly (which is not always the case).
Вариант 3:In the Bank
In a large, dimly lighted room with acoustic walls and ceilings to deaden sound, about fifty operators — predominantly women — are ting at a battery of monitors with a keyboard beneath each. It is here it holders of the blue, green, and gold credit cards are given or fused credit.
When a card is presented anywhere in payment for goods or services, the place of business can accept the card without question if the amount is below an agreed limit, usually between twenty-five and fifty liars. For a larger purchase, authorization is needed, though it takes lye seconds to obtain.
The approval procedures move at jet speed. From wherever they are, merchants and others dial directly to the credit-card processing center of the bank. Automatically each call is routed to a free operator, hose first words are, "What is your merchant number?" As soon as the answer has been given, the operator types the figures, which appears simultaneously on the monitor. Next she askers the card number and amount of credit being sought. They are also typed and displayed.
The operator presses the key, feeding the information to a computer which instantly signals "accepted" or "declined". The first means that credit is good and the purchase has been approved, the second the cardholder is delinquent and credit has been cut off. The operator informs the merchant, the computer records the transaction. On a 1 mal day fifteen thousand calls come in
Sometimes a monitor flashes a message from the computer « "stolen card". In this situation an operator, speaking calmly, as trained has to answer, "The card presented to you has been reported as stolen If possible, detain the person presenting it and call police. Retain the card. The bank will pay you thirty dollars reward for its return."
Storekeepers are usually pleased at the prospect to get an easy thirty dollars. For the bank it is also a good deal, since the card, left in circulation, can be used fraudulently for a much greater total amount
But this system works well only when the bank has got the information and can program the computer. Unfortunately most of the defrauding happens before a missing card is reported. To avoid this computer also warns the operators about excessive purchasing: when a c.nl holder makes ten or more purchases during a single day, the computer alerts an operator. Since an ordinary cardholder never makes more than six or eight purchases a day, a card showing more than normal use may be fraudulent, even though the owner might be unaware of its loss.
However, despite all the warning systems, a lost or stolen card if used cautiously is still good for twenty thousand dollars' worth of fraudulent purchases in the week or so during which most stolen cards stayed unreported.
Moreover, there are devices used by criminals to decide whether a stolen card can be used again or if it is hot. A favorite is to pay a waiter twenty-five dollars to check a card out. He can get the answer easily by consulting a weekly confidential warning list issued by the credit card company to merchants and restaurants.
Вариант 4: What Is International Trade?
When Honduras exports bananas to Switzerland, they can use the money they earn to import Swiss chocolate — or to pay for Kuwaiti oil or a vacation in Hawaii. The basic idea of international trade $0 investment is simple: each country produces goods or services that can be either consumed at home or exported to other countries.
The main difference between domestic trade and international trade is the use of foreign currencies to pay for the goods and services crossing international borders. Although global trade is often added up m U.S. dollars, the trading itself involves various currencies. Japan. . » videocassette recorders are paid for in German marks in Berlin, and German cars are paid for in U.S. dollars in Boston. Indian tea, Brazilian coffee, and American films are sold around the world in currencies diverse as Turkish liras and Mexican pesos. Whenever a country imports or exports goods and services, there is a resulting flow of funds: money returns to the exporting nation, and money flows out of the importing nation. Trade and investment is two-way street, and with a minimum of trade barriers, international trade and investment usually makes everyone better off.
In an interlinked global economy, consumers are given the opportunity to buy the best products at the best prices. By opening up marls, a government allows its citizens to produce and export those things they are best at and to import the rest, choosing from whatever e world has to offer.
Some trade barriers will always exist as long as any two countries have different sets of laws. However, when a country decides to protect economy by erecting artificial trade barriers, the result is often dam-mi: to everyone, including those people whose barriers were meant protect.
The Great Depression of the 1930s for example spread around the world when the United States decided to erect trade barriers to protect local producers. As other countries retaliated trade plundered jobs were lost and the world entered into a long period of economic decline.
Вариант 5: Multitasking
From the earliest time people have been trying to do several things simultaneously. They can read a book, cook dinner, talk on the phone and do many other things at the same time. As cars have become- gm able, the time of multitasking has increased: people drive, listen to the radio, eat, and smoke in their cars at the same time.
Now an arsenal of new technology (from notebook computers |b cellular phones and portable televisions) makes it possible for everyone to multitask all day.
The computer industry introduced the word "multitasking" into the vocabulary. Mainframe computers that handled networks were the original multitaskers. Apple's and Microsoft's software turned millions of personal computers into multitaskers. Today millions of people can set their personal computers to multitask while they are themselves multitasking: talking on the phone, receiving faxes, and looking through newspapers at the same time.
While multitasking is not bad for computers, it may be a bad thing for some people. Psychologists say it is possible for the human brain to process two or more tasks at the same time, but only one of them reserves full attention. Multitasking makes people's stressful lives even more stressful. Experts say that although a lot of people believe that multitasking enhances their productivity, in fact it can reduce it.
Because of the limitation of the human brain, multitasking can lead to many mistakes. Indeed, a person who is doing several things at the same time may put the wrong number in a spreadsheet or send a message to the wrong e-mail address. Moreover, people on the other end of the line don't usually like to talk to a person who is doing something else while talking to them. It may alienate the people from the multitasked.
Multitaskers also like to do more than one thing at once even their leisure time. They cannot watch television without readings newspaper or have dinner without watching TV.
Now multitasking takes place nearly everywhere. A lot of businessmen and managers are never far from their notebook computer and cellular telephones. They are almost always doing two or three things at once, driving and dialing, speaking and typing on their computers. On airplanes they are using their notebook computers to answer e-mail messages. While driving, they are speaking on their cellular phones. "Why wait?" they ask. "That's the world we live in right now
Вариант 6: Pattern of Multitasking
Edwina went back to the beginning. What were the obvious facts? The first was that money was missing. The second was that the amount was six thousand dollars. The third obvious fact was that Juanita Nunez knew the exact amount of money missing from her cash drawer after almost five hours of transactions and before she had balanced out cash. Everyone who knew about the loss agreed it was impossible,
But was it impossible? Edwina got up. "Mr. Tottenhoe, will you come with me, please?"
They crossed the floor. Juanita Nunez was accepting a deposit Edwina said quietly, "Mrs. Nunez, when you've dealt with this customer, please put up your 'position closed' sign and lock your cash drawer."
Juanita did not speak while transferring a small metal plaque to the counter as instructed.
Edwina asked, "Mrs. Nunez, you've been insisting that you always know the amount of cash you have. Do you know how much is in you drawer now?"
Juanita hesitated. Then she nodded, unable to speak.
Edwina handed her a slip of paper. "Write down the amount'" After visible hesitation Juanita took a pencil and wrote, "$23,765".
Edwina passed the slip to Tottenhoe. "Please go with Mrs. Nunez and stay with her until she balances out today's cash. Compare the result with this figure."
Three quarters of an hour later Tottenhoe reappeared. He put the slip of paper on Edwina's desk.
"The figure was right?" Edwina asked."Exactly right," Tottenhoe replied.
Литература:
Основная
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Дополнительная
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