Программа кандидатского экзамена по иностранному языку по программам подготовки научно-педагогических кадров в аспирантуре
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Why Loneliness Could Be a Bigger Public Health Threat Than Obesity What makes us happiest in life? Some people may point to fabulous fame and fortune. Yet hands down, surveys show that friends and family are the real prize. Even though our need to connect is innate, some of us always go home alone. You could have people around you throughout the day or even be in a lifelong marriage, and still experience a deep, pervasive loneliness. Unsurprisingly, isolation can have a serious detrimental effect on one's mental and physical health. Loneliness is a complex and usually unpleasant emotional response to isolation. Loneliness typically includes anxious feelings about a lack of connection or communication with other beings, both in the present and extending into the future. As such, loneliness can be felt even when surrounded by other people. The causes of loneliness are varied and include social, mental, emotional and physical factors. Research has shown that loneliness is prevalent throughout society, including people in marriages, relationships, families, veterans, and those with successful careers.[1] It has been a long explored theme in the literature of human beings since classical antiquity. Loneliness has also been described as social pain—a psychological mechanism meant to motivate an individual to seek social connections.[2] Loneliness is often defined in terms of one's connectedness to others, or more specifically as “the unpleasant experience that occurs when a person's network of social relations is deficient in some important way.” Loneliness is perhaps a less obvious public health problem, but it affects tens of millions and could be more dangerous than obesity, according to a new study. The research looked at two meta-analyses: One examined 148 studies involving 300,000 participants, which discovered greater social connection is linked to a 50 percent lowered risk of premature death. The other study, evaluating 3.4 million people across 70 studies, revealed that social isolation, loneliness or living alone led to a significant or equal effect on mortality as obesity and other risk factors. More research and resources should be put in place to combat loneliness on a societal and personal level. This could mean everything from offering social skills training in school to encouraging people to plan for retirement both socially and financially. Chronic loneliness affects about 42.6 million U.S. adults over age 45. U.S. census data indicates more than one-quarter of people live alone and more than half aren't married. Those who are aging alone are encouraged to speak up about their concerns, prepare early for their futures, make new friends while keeping old ones and more. (healthusnews) 13.00.08 Singapore has the highest-achieving primary and secondary pupils in international education tests in maths and science. But primary school pupils in Northern Ireland were ranked sixth at maths, the highest of any in Europe. England's performance has not advanced since tests four years ago. The top places in these rankings are dominated by East Asian countries, such as South Korea and Japan, which are pulling away from their competitors. These international rankings - Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) - are published every four years, based on tests taken by more than 600,000 students, aged nine to 10 and 13 to 14 in 57 countries. International competition has been a major focus for changes to England's school system - and researchers say the "most surprising feature of England's 2015 results is how little they've changed since 2011". "The period between 2011 and 2015, under Michael Gove, saw major changes to school structures, the curriculum, teacher training, and assessment, and so one might have expected to see some impact from these changes," said Ben Durbin at the National Foundation for Educational Research. England is above average - and ahead of many European countries - but it has not made any significant progress in rankings, despite the ambitions of ministers that overhauling the school system would tackle "stagnating" performance. In these latest international TIMSS tests, England has fallen down in maths by one place at both primary, from ninth to 10th, and secondary level, 10th to 11th. earlier this month in South Korea, praying for their When these same tests were taken in 2007, it was England that was sixth in primary maths, the place now occupied by Northern Ireland. In science, England's primary pupils remain in 15th place, but have risen from ninth to eighth place at secondary level. England's School Standards Minister Nick Gibb said the results showed pupils in England were more "engaged and confident" than many international rivals. "The new more demanding primary maths curriculum began to be taught in schools from September 2014, and we expect future TIMSS surveys to reflect further progress," said Mr Gibb. But Labour's Angela Rayner said the results had been achieved despite "constant chopping and changing to exams, school structures and the curriculum". Russell Hobby, leader of the National Association of Head Teachers, said that staff shortages of specialist teachers in maths and science was keeping England out of the "premier division" of international education. Northern Ireland has performed very strongly at primary maths, maintaining the same position as four years ago, and is the first in the following group behind the top Asian countries. It puts Northern Irish youngsters ahead of countries such as Finland and Norway, which are usually high achievers. Image Ireland excelled at maths at primary level. Scotland and Wales did not participate in these tests. The results, for tests taken in 2015, show a group of high-achieving Asian countries stretching their lead, compared with the last round of tests. For both primary and secondary levels and in maths and science, all the top places are taken by Asian countries, headed by Singapore. Despite Singapore's international success in tests, there have been concerns about young people feeling under too much pressure. The Ministry of Education in Singapore has produced an advert with a message that education is more than about getting high grades. Finland, often used as a model for school improvement, has declined in these rankings. The tests are run by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement in the Netherlands and Boston College in the US. Ina Mullis, executive director of the TIMSS tests, said the overall findings showed a "lot of good news" about schools - with test scores rising and more children saying that school is a safe environment. Prof Mullis said that the success of Asian countries reflected the "coherence" of their approach and a "culture steeped in education". "The rest of the world has their work cut out," she said, as countries such as Singapore and South Korea stretched even further ahead. The most important common factor to success was the quality and status of teaching, said TIMSS director Michael Martin. And Singapore's achievement reflected that it had made education a priority. Another director of the testing project, Dr Dirk Hastedt, said in South Korea there were stories of roads being closed so as not to disturb students taking exams. "Education has a huge value in these countries," said Dr Hastedt. Looking at the long-term trends, over 20 years of tests, he said that class sizes were getting smaller - and in countries such as South Korea by a very significant amount. But he said that there was no apparent link between class sizes and level of achievement. "The key is the teacher," he said. How Canada became an international superpower But with much less recognition, Canada has climbed into the top tier of international rankings. In the most recent round of international Pisa tests, Canada was one of a handful of countries to appear in the top 10 for maths, science and reading. The tests, run by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), are a major study of educational performance and show Canada's teenagers as among the best educated in the world. They are far ahead of geographical neighbours such as the US and European countries with strong cultural ties like the UK and France. At university level, Canada has the world's highest proportion of working-age adults who have been through higher education - 55% compared with an average in OECD countries of 35%. Canada's success in school tests is also very unusual compared with other international trends. The top performers are often cohesive, compact societies and the current highest achiever, Singapore, has been seen as a model of systematic progress, with each part of the education system integrated into an overarching national strategy. Canada does not even really have a national education system, it is based on autonomous provinces and it is hard to think of a bigger contrast between a city state such as Singapore and a sprawling land mass such as Canada. The OECD, trying to understand Canada's success in education, described the role of the federal government as "limited and sometimes non-existent". Also not widely recognised is that Canada has a high level of migrants in its school population. More than a third of young adults in Canada are from families where both parents are from another country. But the children of newly-arrived, migrant families seem to integrate rapidly enough to perform at the same high level as their classmates. When the most recent Pisa rankings are looked at more closely, at regional rather than national level, the results for Canada are even more remarkable. If Canadian provinces entered Pisa tests as separate countries, three of them, Alberta, British Columbia and Quebec, would be in the top five places for science in the world, alongside Singapore and Japan and above the likes of Finland and Hong Kong. So how has Canada overtaken so many other countries in education? Andreas Schleicher, the OECD's education director, says Canada's "big uniting theme is equity". Despite the different policies in individual provinces, there is a common commitment to an equal chance in school. He says there is a strong sense of fairness and equal access - and this is seen in the high academic performance of migrant children. Within three years of arriving, the Pisa tests show the children of new migrants have scores as high as the rest of their schoolmates. It makes Canada one of the few countries where migrant children achieve at a level similar to their non-migrant counterparts. Another distinguishing feature is that Canada's teachers are well paid by international standards - and entry into teaching is highly selective. Prof David Booth, from the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto, highlights Canada's "strong base in literacy". There have been systematic efforts to improve literacy, with well-trained staff, resources such as school libraries and testing and assessment to identify schools or individuals who are struggling. Prof John Jerrim, of the UCL Institute of Education in London, says that Canada's high league table ranking reflects the narrow socio-economic gap in school results. Rather than a country of extremes, Canada's results show a very high average, with relatively little difference between advantaged and disadvantaged students. In the most recent Pisa results for science, the variation in scores in Canada caused by socio-economic differences was 9%, compared with 20% in France and 17% in Singapore. The equitable outcome goes a long way to explaining why Canada is doing so well in international tests. It does not have a tail of underachievement, often related to poverty. It is a remarkably consistent system. As well as little variation between rich and poor students, there is very little variation in results between schools, compared with the average for developed countries. Rather than high levels of immigration being seen as a potential drag on results, Prof Jerrim says in Canada's case, this is likely to be part of its success story. Migrants coming to Canada, many from countries such as China, India and Pakistan, are often relatively well-educated and ambitious to see their children get into professional careers. Prof Jerrim says these families have an immigrant "hunger" to succeed, and their high expectations are likely to boost school results for their children. Prof Booth from the University of Toronto also points to the high expectations of these migrant families. "Many families new to Canada want their children to excel at school, and the students are motivated to learn," he said. This has been a bumper year for education in Canada. The universities are reaping the benefits of the Trump effect, with record levels of applications from overseas students seeing Canada as a North American alternative to the United States. There has also been a Canadian winner of the Global Teacher Prize, with Maggie MacDonnell using the award to campaign for indigenous students. As Canada marks its 150th anniversary, it can claim the status of an education superpower. Приложение 2 Примеры текстов для выполнения второго экзаменационного задания. Текст 2.1 Greece debt fears hit fever pitch A morning of volatile trading saw investors demand the most to own Greek government debt since the country joined the euro in 2001. The yield on Greece's 10-year bond jumped to 7.42pc. “International support for Greek debt will continue to wane until we actually see explicit details of the support package,” said Jim Reid, head of fundamental strategy at Deutsche Bank. “The market is in the mood to force the hand of the authorities over this.” Greece's debt has given European Monetary Union its severest crisis in the currency's short history, raising questions over whether German taxpayers will be prepared to bail-out Europe's most indebted country. The euro has tumbled 7pc against the dollar since the start of the year amid fears that a credible plan for rescuing Greece will be agreed. The yield on the Greek 10-year bonds eased slightly to 7.35pc after Jean-Claude Trichet, head of the European Central Bank, said he did not expect Greece to default on its loans and that he is confident the country will solve its own budget problems. “A default is not an issue for Greece,” Mr Trichet told reporters in Frankfurt on Thursday. He made the remarks after the ECB left its benchmark interest rate at a record low of 1pc Greece has so far managed to secure the loans it needs but at high cost and dwindling demand in Europe, leading it to consider American buyers for its next bond issue. It needs to borrow €11.5bn by May to cover its payment obligations. The country is mired in a deepening recession and is trying to reduce a mountain of debt of nearly €300bn. It has also set itself the huge task of cutting its budget deficit by four percentage points this year, from a current official level of 12.7pc output, which the government now concedes will be at least 12.9pc due to the shrinkage of the economy. |
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