Программа кандидатского экзамена по иностранному языку по программам подготовки научно-педагогических кадров в аспирантуре
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| Part of Nicotera’s anger, for instance, is that nostalgia for an earlier time. “The day after Thanksgiving, the whole world opened up and there was Christmas,” she recalls. “People today are missing that thrill — they are missing the awe and surprise.” Indeed, the holidays are a deeply emotional and nostalgic time and many people feel like seeing Santa store displays in September cheapens the holiday, Yarrow says. Add to that, consumers who despise the creep also are offended at the idea of Christmas becoming commercialised and encroaching on family and religious time. “They have a perception of the holiday that is Rockwellian,” she says referring to the American artist Norman Rockwell, who sentimentalised American culture. “They feel that the values of respecting tradition and holiday are violated” by Christmas bombardment when summer is still in full swing. Some retailers are taking note. US department store chain Nordstrom said in an email that it continues to close on Thanksgiving day to prepare holiday decorations in stores, display windows and online to be revealed the day after. “The response from our customers is always very positive,” wrote a Nordstrom spokesperson. “We’ve heard from our customers that they appreciate our approach to celebrate one holiday at a time.” And Australian retailer Myer takes a phased approach so as not to alienate shoppers. The Christmas trim department opens in mid-October with Santa arriving to the store in early November. By early December stores are fully decked out. “[This] offers customers the ability to get into the Christmas spirit when it suits them,” wrote James Sheppard, general manager visual merchandise at Myer. In some countries, though, consumers are more receptive to Christmas creep, notes Yarrow. She was in Finland one year at the end of November and found that because the sun sets so early that time of year, “people can’t wait for the lights to go up”. Even Nicotera likes to get prepared for the holidays well in advance. Even though she waits until late November to put up Christmas decorations, “my Christmas cards are in the mail by Thanksgiving,” she says. (BBC Capital) What is a 'Gig Economy' In a gig economy, temporary, flexible jobs are commonplace and companies tend toward hiring independent contractors and freelancers instead of full-time employees. A gig economy undermines the traditional economy of full-time workers who rarely change positions and instead focus on a lifetime career. Due to the large numbers of people willing to work part-time or temporary positions, the result of a gig economy is cheaper, more efficient services (such as Uber or Airbnb) for those willing to use them. Those who don't engage in using technological services such as the Internet tend to be left behind by the benefits of the gig economy. Cities tend to have the most highly developed services and are the most entrenched in the gig economy. While not all employers tend toward hiring contracted employees, the gig economy trend often makes it harder for full-time employees to fully develop in their careers, since temporary employees are often cheaper to hire and more flexible in their availability. There is a wide range of positions that fall into the category of a "gig." For example, adjunct and part-time professors are considered to be contracted employees, as opposed to tenured or tenure-track professors. Colleges and universities are able to cut costs and match professors to their academic needs by hiring more adjunct and part-time professors. What Factors Contribute to a Gig Economy? America is well on its way to establishing a gig economy, and it is estimated that as much as a third of the working population is already working in some sort of gig capacity. This number is only expected to rise. In the modern digital world, it's becoming increasingly common for people to work remotely or from home. This facilitates independent contracting work, as many of those jobs don't require the freelancer to come in to the office to work. Employers also have a wider range of applicants to choose from, as they don't necessarily have to choose to hire someone based on their proximity. Additionally, computers have developed to the point that they can take the place of the jobs people previously held. Economic reasons also factor in to the development of a gig economy. In many cases, employers cannot afford to hire full-time employees to do all the work they need done, so they hire part-time or temporary employees to take care of busier times or specific projects. On the side of the employee, people often find that they need to move around or take more than one position in order to afford the lifestyle they want. People also tend to change careers many times throughout their lives, so the gig economy is the reflection of this occurring on a large scale. A freelance economy revolves around hiring self-employed workers to undertake specific, short-term jobs in return for an agreed upon wage. These jobs typically are too small or infrequent to hire a full time employee or would be too expensive to contract out to another firm. Freelancers are the individuals who make themselves available to be hired for such temporary work. They may find temporary work through classified ads, online, or through temporary staffing agencies. The internet has made freelancing a more attractive pursuit for many individuals in the fields of writing, journalism, design, artistic pursuits, editing, multimedia, consulting, computer programming, and many more. The freelance economy is closely related to the Peer-to-Peer (P2P) economy. However, it is not uncommon for businesses to hire freelance workers, while a P2P transaction involves individuals. The freelance economy involves specific, short-term jobs that can last anywhere from less than an hour to more than a year. Jobs can be found advertised in classified ads, websites such as Craigslist, online services such as eLance and through temp agencies. The freelance economy is predicted to grow as the Internet and information technology make it easier for individuals to get paid for jobs that require their skills. It is estimated that more than 50 million Americans partake in freelance work either full-time or part-time, which is about 1/3 of the entire workforce. 05.13.10 The man who designs the world Syd Mead wasn’t planning on becoming a visual futurist. The job description didn’t even exist until he invented it. “They were doing the credits for Blade Runner and they rang and asked what I’d like to call myself,” Mead says. “I’d been doing visual stuff for 20 years and it was mostly future, so I came up with Visual Futurist.” From organic starships and glistening space colonies, to dystopian cities and grimy spacecraft, if you want to know what any possible future looks like, Syd Mead is the man to call. As well as Blade Runner, his designs have enabled directors to realise future worlds for movies including Star Trek, Aliens, Tron and Elysium. We meet at Mead’s home and studio in Pasadena – itself a futuristic open-plan house, with verandas and an indoor fountain – set into a wooded hillside. As well as artwork, the walls are covered in shelves of model cars. Mead is also an automobile enthusiast, starting his career at Ford before founding his own corporation in 1970. His company’s first commission was to design cassette recorders for electronics multinational Phillips in Holland. “When I started, the attitude was to let the engineers make it work and we’ll make it look as good as possible,” he says. “And I arrive as this brash American and I’m doing these renderings for things that didn’t exist – I was hired to work five years ahead of the actual design process.” Then, shortly after he moved to southern California in 1975, Paramount Pictures called to ask if he’d like to work on a science fiction film. “I thought, why not?” says Mead. “It wasn’t like Saul on the road to Damascus – a flash of light – it was just another job for my corporation.” Reuniting the crew of the Enterprise, 10 years after the TV series had been cancelled, Star Trek the Motion Picture was due for release in 1979. The movie featured a giant starship, V’ger, which threatened the Earth. “It was a retread of a TV segment that had been done before,” says Mead, “[so] it wasn’t totally original.”But Mead’s spaceship was. “The whole idea was to create an organic texture as if it had grown over a mechanical frame,” he explains. “So I looked at pictures of vines in Angkor Wat, where the jungle takes over a machine, it suggests a mystery that entertains the eye.” He finished the design in a hotel bar, along the street from the Phillips studios in Eindhoven. “I was having a Brandy Manhattan, drawing this spaceship on a napkin,” Mead says. “Once you have a pen and paper, you can draw anywhere.” The concept was realised as a giant 42-ft-long model, which cameras could sweep across to give the impression of immense size. After the film’s release, Mead was approached by Star Trek creator and producer Gene Roddenberry to redesign the Enterprise for the forthcoming Next Generation TV series. But Roddenberry insisted that all the work was done at the Star Trek production offices. “He said you have to work here – he was a control freak,” says Mead, who declined the offer. “A friend of mine designed it – it ended up with an oval top that detaches and a bottom half that looks like a chicken with its head cut off.” The challenge with all his designs, explains Mead, is to try to make the creations futuristic but believable. “My fantasy has always been influenced by knowing how to design real stuff,” he says. “Designing weapons and rocket ships and all these things I’ve worked on, you have to make sure they look like they’re capable of doing what the storyline says they are… and that’s why they hire me.” But, Mead concedes, there is always a balance to be struck. For the 2013 Matt Damon movie Elysium, for instance, he was asked to visualise the interior of a giant space colony. It houses the world’s elite in luxury high above the Earth, while the planet appears to be in terminal decline. A metaphor for immigration and class struggle, the cylindrical space habitat is a utopian world of lakes, mountains and high living. For the space colony to have artificial gravity, it needed to rotate. Mead called up a friend at Nasa’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, also in Pasadena, to make sure he got this rate of revolution correct. “So, he figures it out and says it has to go past a fixed point every two and a half minutes.” But not everything in the movie is as scientifically precise. One scene has Matt Damon’s spacecraft crash landing on the surface of the artificial world. This meant that, rather than being enclosed, the space colony had to somehow be open to space. As a result, during publicity for the film, an interviewer suggested the science was flawed. “I whispered back to him: ‘It’s a movie’,” says Mead. “Technical expertise is admirable, but for a movie you have to go over the top of reality, otherwise it doesn’t look like it should.” And often even the highest-tech reality is, frankly, disappointing. “The first Cray computer looked like a cheap prop from a badly funded science fiction movie, it was pathetic,” Mead says, “and it was the fastest computer in the world at the time.” Although he’s made his name in the movies, Mead maintains that a good designer can work on anything. “Cassettes, TVs and starships – one technology is just way ahead of the other,” he says. “I call science fiction ‘reality ahead of schedule’.” The Channel Tunnel that was never built The Channel Tunnel linking Britain and France holds the record for the longest undersea tunnel in the world – 50km (31 miles) long. More than 20 years after its opening, it carries more than 10 million passengers a year – and more than 1.6 million lorries – via its rail-based shuttle service. What many people don’t know, however, is that when owner Eurotunnel won the contract to build its undersea connection, the firm was obliged to come up with plans for a second Channel Tunnel… by the year 2000. Although those plans were published the same year, the tunnel still has not gone ahead. The second ‘Chunnel’ isn’t the only underwater tunnel to remain a possibility. For centuries, there have been discussions about other potential tunnelling projects around the British Isles, too. These include a link between the island of Orkney and the Scottish mainland, a tunnel between the Republic of Ireland and Wales and one between Northern Ireland and Scotland. Some of these tunnels yet may happen: even the Channel Tunnel built for the railway in the 1980s was the culmination of nearly 200 years of thought and discussion. At the time, British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher’s own preference was for a road tunnel, not the current railway service. She liked the idea, some believe, because cars “represented freedom and individualism”. But Thatcher’s project was considered unsafe, says Eurotunnel spokesman John Keefe. It’s one thing to send trains through the tunnel at wide intervals; it’s quite another to allow hundreds of drivers through in an endless stream. Should a crash or pile-up occur 15 miles out to sea, it would be very hard to rescue those trapped in the chaos. “It was considered not the right thing to do, even though Margaret Thatcher pushed very hard for it,” says Keefe. The prime minister compromised. “She said, ‘All right, I’ll go along with the safety argument, I’ll accept that, but as technology improves I want a commitment to plan a second tunnel – a road tunnel’,” Keefe adds, paraphrasing. Even when the plans were made and released more than 20 years after the prime minister’s demand, they were still considered too risky. But that might change. One of the major problems – noxious fumes from hundreds of vehicles – will become less of an issue with the rise of hybrid and electric cars, says Keefe. Safety, too, may be a more minor concern, because autonomous driving technology already allows some experimental cars to pilot themselves along motorways. They could theoretically do the same in an undersea tunnel, potentially reducing the chances of a crash or jam. If technology does evolve in these ways, then plans for a second tunnel could be revived. “I think it’s highly likely that conversations like this will take place in the coming 10 or 20 years,” Keefe says. Alan Stevens at the UK’s Transport Research Laboratory agrees. He suggests that by the 2030s technology may have reached a critical point. “You’d have to say only automated vehicles of a certain standard, and ones that could move together – then you’d get a nice flow through your tube,” he says. “It’s certainly something that I think will be thought about.” The first meaningful attempt to build a tunnel across the English Channel happened much earlier than most people think. In 1880, a century before the modern project got underway in 1988, work started on experimental tunnels at the base of Abbot’s Cliff near Folkestone. Creating an undersea connection with France across the English Channel was something that had been talked about since the early 1800s, and supporters included Napoleon Bonaparte. In some places, the men worked with hand tools. But they also had an ingenious contraption with them – a tunnel boring machine. As compressed air in the machine’s motor forced the rotary head into action, tough rock in front would fall away. Keefe is one of relatively few people today to have visited the site. Deep inside the warren, the aging tubes carved out by the boring machine are mostly featureless, though there is one piece of Victorian graffiti scratched into the rock: “THIS TUNNEL WAS BEGUNUG N [sic] in 1880” – signed “WILLIAM SHARP”. “They look like you imagine an old Cornish tin mine to look like,” says Keefe, describing the place. “They’re low wooden [beams], pretty intact and pretty dry. But they are nothing like what you really need to run an international undersea tunnel.” The venture was typically ambitious for the time, says Graeme Bickerdike, rail engineer and editor of engineering history website Forgotten Relics. “Nothing seemed to faze the Victorians,” he says. “They had a vision of the transformational nature of railways and they clearly saw a link to the continent being critical to that vision.” But it was not to be. Beyond the technical challenges, there were political fears about building a direct connection to a country with which Great Britain had so frequently been at war. Sir Edward Watkin, who was in charge of the excavations, at one point suggested that in the event of conflict the entrance to the tunnel could be collapsed with a mine wired to a button somewhere – perhaps even as far away as London. Tunnel fever is still with us. Recently, the idea of a Welsh-Irish link was mulled in a 2014 document by the Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (Cilt). The report argued that by 2035, such a connection could be a “serious topic of debate”. But the proposal has “not gone much further since”, says Andrew Potter, who chairs Cilt’s Cymru-Wales committee. Part of the problem is that it would be an exceptionally long connection – at 100km (62 miles) or so it would be roughly twice the length of the Channel Tunnel. Further north from there, a much shorter distance – between 10 and 25km (6 to 15 miles) – exists between various coastal points in Scotland and Northern Ireland. That’s short enough to build a bridge across, though the cost would certainly amount to a few billion pounds. Still, that hasn’t stopped the idea of a tunnel or bridge being mooted by politicians in both countries in recent years. In the meantime, British tunnelling expertise is being put to good use elsewhere. The most obvious example is London’s Crossrail, which is the largest civil construction project in Europe. A smaller but significant project will soon follow – the Lower Thames Crossing will connect Essex and Kent, in part via a new tunnel under the River Thames. And further afield, British engineers are also assisting with the development of another major venture: the Fehmarn Belt Fixed Link. Linking the Danish island of Lolland with the German island of Fehmarn, the tunnel will feature an 18km (11 mile) undersea portion. Construction is due to start as early as the end of 2017. Richard Miller of engineering consultancy Ramboll UK, which is Danish-owned, explains that the tunnel will be pre-fabricated on land, floated out to position and then lowered into a trench on the seabed. This is known as an immersed tube, or IMT, design and has been used before, including for the Sydney Harbour Tunnel in Australia. “The casting is on land, so there’s no construction in the ground in dirty wet holes,” says Miller. The Channel Tunnel and Crossrail’s tunnels, by contrast, were created using a cylindrical tunnel boring machine (TBM). (BBC Future) |
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