Нижний Новгород, 2005 Печатается по решению редакционно-издательского совета гоу нижегородского государственного лингвистического университета им. Н. А. Добролюбова
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Текст 4 Самая большая трагедия, постигшая человека – это эмоциональная депрессия, тупость интеллекта, потеря инициативы, которые имеют началом неправильное питание. “Люди не умирают, они убивают сами себя” – считают философы. Пища для размышлений Самый большой грех – страх. Самый лучший день – сегодня! Самый лучший город – там, где ты преуспеваешь. Самая лучшая работа – та, которую ты любишь. Самый лучший отдых – работа. Самая большая ошибка – потеря надежды. Самая большая слабость – ненависть. Самый большой нарушитель спокойствия – болтун. Самая нелепая черта характера – самомнение. Самый опасный человек – лжец. Самая большая потребность – общение. Самое большое богатство – здоровье. Самый лучший дар, который ты можешь дать или получить – любовь. Самый большой друг и товарищ – хорошие книги. Твои враги – зависть, жадность, потакание собственным слабостям, жалость к самому себе. Самое большое событие в жизни – физическое, ментальное и духовное перерождение. Самое отвратительное в человеке – зазнайство. Самое отталкивающее – тирания. Наиболее гадкая черта – высокомерие. Самый большой камень преткновения, о который постоянно спотыкаешься – невежество. Самый умный человек – тот, кто всегда делает то, что следует, это и есть правило, следуя которому можно стать умным человеком. (Из книги “Двери в бессмертие и окно в космос”) * * * 6  .8. Find a Russian article dealing with the problems discussed, provide it with the necessary props, organize its rendering and discussion in class. FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES 6.9. Prepare a talk on your role as teacher and parent in bringing up a harmoniously developed personality, which is a sort of immunity from any addiction or mania. 6  .10. Arrange a round-table talk in the TV-studio "A Healthy Way of Life". 1) Situation: To lead a healthy life is a vital necessity for everyone, especially for young people. It is the only way to realize oneself, not to get lost. The duty of public at large is not to let young adults suffer or die of ignorance. 2) Cast List: A famous sportsman, a psycho-analyst, a dietician, a psychologist, a narcologist, a football fan, a TV reporter, an abstainer, a former alcoholic (now an AA-society member), a sociologist, a famous film star. 3) What You Must Decide: a. What are the ways and means of resisting temptations of the so-called "youth culture"? b. What principles of healthy living can you recommend? 4) Choose the roles, make up the role-cards and cue-cards, act out the role play. WRITING ACTIVITIES 6  .11. Write an essay "How to Enjoy Life".VIEWING ACTIVITIES 6  .12. Watch the film “Ecstasy” and discuss it.LONG TERM TASK 6.13. Prepare a report on the problems tackled in Unit 5 on the basis of your set book. FOOD FOR THOUGHT 6.14. Using the information you have acquired this year comment on the following bits of psychology and philosophy. 1  ) Life is best in retrospect (W. Gerhardt).2) When a condition or a problem becomes too great, humans have the protection of not thinking about it (J. Steinbeck). 3) Failure is a state of mind. It’s like one of those sand traps an ant lion digs. Once you get out, you’ll find success is a state of mind, too (J. Steinbeck). 4) Most people live 90% in the past, 7% in the present, and that only leaves them 3% for the future (J. Steinbeck). 5) Your only obligation in any lifetime is to be true to yourself (R. Bach). 6) Some people are unhappy because they have chosen to be unhappy (R.Bach). 7) You are never given a wish without also being given a power to make it true. You may have to work for it, however (R. Bach). 8) There is no such thing as a problem without a gift for you in its hands. You seek problems because you need their gifts (R. Bach). 9) Argue for your limitations and you get to keep them (R. Bach). 10) The mark of your ignorance is the depth of your belief in injustice and tragedy. What the caterpillar calls the end of the world, the master calls a butterfly (R. Bach). 11) We are all free to do what we want to do as long as we do not hurt somebody else (R. Bach). 12) To be conscious that you are ignorant is a great step to knowledge (B.Disraeli). 13) The great tragedy of life is not that the men perish, but that they cease to love (W.S. Maugham). 14) It is a very different thing to tell the truth about yourself and to have somebody else tell it (W.S. Maugham). 15) We must not find the present unsatisfactory; we must merely take it for granted (W.S. Maugham). 16) You teach best what you most need to learn (R. Bach). 17) None of us can stand other people having the same faults as ourselves (O.Wilde). 18) A prophet has no honour in his own country (The Bible, John, 4:44). 19) Money not only has no heart, but no honour, nor any memory. Where money is concerned the ordinary rules of conduct take a holiday (J.Steinbeck). 20) Within each of us lies the power of our consent to health and to sickness, to riches and to poverty, to freedom and to slavery. It is we who control these, and not another (R. Bach). 21) Remember where you came from, where you are going and why you created the mess you got yourself into (R. Bach). 22) Your conscience is the measure of the honesty of your selfishness. Listen to it carefully (R. Bach). 23) An ounce of vanity spoils a hundredweight of merit (Ch. Dickens). 24) Criticism is purely destructive. Anyone can destroy but not everyone can build up (W.S. Maugham). 25) He that falls in love with himself will have no rivals (B. Franklin). 26) Truth is always strange – stranger than fiction (J.G. Byron). 27) The liar’s punishment is not in the least that he is not believed, but that he cannot believe anyone else (G.B. Shaw). 28) Every effect that one produces gives one an enemy. To be popular one must be a mediocrity (O. Wilde). 29) Charms strike the sight but merit wins the soul (A. Pope). 30) No quality will get a man more friends than a disposition to admire the qualities of others (J. Boswell). Appendixes Appendix 1. Text Interpretation Reading a piece of fiction we participate in the adventures and the imaginary experiences of imaginary people. There are two main types of literature: literature of escape and literature of interpretation. Escape literature has its only object – pleasure. It is created to entertain readers. A story becomes interpretative as it illuminates some aspects of human life or behaviuor. An interpretative story presents an insight into the nature and conditions of our existence. It gives us a keener awareness of what it is to be a human being in the Universe. It helps us to understand other people and ourselves. In the text interpretation the reader gets an insight into the plot, the composition, the idea and themes, the problems and facts of life and the characters. The plot is a sequence of events of which a story is composed. It is the easiest element in fiction to comprehend and put into words. The plot may include what a character does as well as what he says or thinks. But it leaves out descriptions and analyses concentrating on major happenings. The plot may include one or many episodes. The development of the plot depends on the CONFLICT. The conflict may be physical, mental and emotional. It may be of three types: 1) MAN against MAN (the main character is in conflict with some other person or group of persons); 2) MAN against ENVIRONMENT (the main character is in conflict with external force, e.g. Nature, fate, society, etc.); 3) MAN against HIMSELF (the main personage is in conflict with his own qualities of character). In some stories the conflict is single, clear-cut and easily identified. In others it is multiple, various and subtle. The central character in the conflict whether he be a sympathetic or an unsympathetic person, is referred to as the PROTAGONIST. The forces arrayed against the protagonist whether persons, things, conventions of society or traits of his own character, are the ANTAGONISTS. Reading for character is more difficult than reading for the plot. Anyone can repeat what a person has done in a story, but considerable skill may be needed to describe what a person is. An author may present his character directly and indirectly. In direct presentation he tells us straight out what a character is like or someone in the story tells us about it. In indirect presentation the author shows us the character in action. We conclude what a character is like from what he thinks or says or does. All fictional characters may be classified as STATIC (who are the same sort of people at the beginning or at the end of the story) and developing or DYNAMIC (if they undergo a permanent change for the better or for the worse). The characters are FLAT if they are characterized by one or two traits and ROUND if they are many-sided. STOCK-CHARACTER is the stereotyped figure who has occurred so often in fiction that his nature is immediately known (the cruel stepmother, the beautiful modest girl or the brilliant detective with eccentric manners, etc.) Every kind of fiction has a basic structural design, which is called the composition. There are three main elements in the composition: the exposition (the necessary preliminaries to the action in which the time or subject is presented; it may be detailed and concentrated in one place or scattered all through the story); the climax (the highest point in the story); the outcome (the unwinding of the action, the events immediately following the climax and bringing the action to an end). The THEME of a piece of fiction is its controlling idea or its central insight, its central purpose. In getting at the theme it’s better to ask not “What does the story teach?” but “What does it reveal?” There are no prescribed methods for discovering the theme. Sometimes the best approach is to explore the nature of the central conflict and its outcome. Sometimes the title may provide an important clue. Sometimes it may be the revelation of a human character. Sometimes the theme is explicitly stated either by the author or by one of the characters. More often it is implied. The theme must be expressed in the form of a statement, e.g. “Motherhood sometimes has more frustrations than rewards”, or in the form of a text. The theme must account for all major details of the story. It must not be contradicted by any detail; it is what gives a story its unity. Some readers consider the terms “moral” and “theme” to be interchangeable. Sometimes they really are and the theme of the story may be expressed as a moral principle without doing violence to the story. In stating the theme terms like “every”, “all”, “always” should be used cautiously. Terms like “sometimes”, “some”, “may” are often more accurate. Appendix 2. Rendering Rendering is the exposition of the content of the Russian text in English. It implies conveying: a) the author’s communicative aim; b) the subject matter of the text and its controlling idea; c) the plot of the text (on a large scale) and the author’s point of view on the problems explicitly or implicitly expressed by the author; d) the learner’s attitude to the problem. The following phrases may be of help to you to cope with rendering: 1) The author reveals the drawbacks (demerits) of…, preaches a humane (altruistic, considerate, merciful, etc.) attitude to…; mocks at; criticizes; ridicules; makes a laughing stock of; idealizes; glorifies; declares; proclaims; wants to make us: think, meditate on, ponder over, feel ashamed for sb./sth. arouses in us a feeling of (guilt, regret, remorse, sympathy, etc.) 2) The author is sure (unlikely, likely) to make us reconsider our attitude to, look inside ourselves, reveal the inner motives of, take sides with, take up a firm attitude, not to jump at conclusions, etc. 3) The article entitled (headlined) … is about … The subject matter of the article is a sentimental, tragic, banal, romantic, dramatic, etc. story/the relationship between … 4) The scene is laid; the setting of the story is; the action takes place; the events unfold, the plot runs as follows; the plot centres on the fate (relations, behaviuor), round the events; the plot unfolds this way. 5) The author raises, deals with, dwells on, touches upon the problem of… 6) I share the author’s opinion (doubts, hesitation, meditation, etc.). I strongly disagree with the author’s opinion (view). I also feel very strong about sth. (charity, mercy, compassion, humaneness, etc.). That remains to be seen if … . It would be right/wrong to assume that … . It is fair/unfair to suggest that … . Appendix 3. Role Play Role play activity is one of the methods of teaching and learning the language. You are offered to act out variuos roles in an imaginary situation imitating a real life situation. The following stages should be observed in the role play: 1. Setting of the situation. You describe what is going to happen in the role play, outlining the circumstances, the place of action, the main events. 2. Problem to solve or what you must decide. The problem is usually of controversial character, the participants may argue for or against, supporting their opinion. 3. Cast list. The participants of the role play are enumerated here. 4. Role cards and cue cards for each participant of the role play. a) the role card contains the information about the person’s name, age, social status, profession, the main line of behaviour, the point of view he/she shares or expresses; b) the cue card contains some linguistic props the person may need to express his/her ideas: vocabulary, syntactic structures, grammatical structures. 5. Role preparation at home and/or in class. 6. Role play proper. 7. Discussion, assessment. 8. Follow-ups. They may include written work on the same topic, oral speech, long-term tasks. What should you observe in role play? 1. The type of role: a) social b) psychological. 2. Emotional attitude. 3. Language function depending on our communicative aim. 4. Formality. 5. Para-linguistic features. 6. Extra-linguistic factors. The Type of Role a) Social roles are the roles we fulfil in everyday life, those of a teacher, a student, a waiter, a customer, a patient, a doctor, an actor, a driver, a pilot, a secretary, a parent, a pupil, a son, a father, etc. b) Psychological roles may be of the following type: An optimist, a pessimist, a cynic, an idealist, a conservative, an innovator, a demagogue, a down-to-earth person, an extremist, a non-conformist, a nuisance/a bore, a nihilist, a coward, a philistine/a consumer, a day-dreamer, a good talker, a self-seeker, an erudite, a snob/a hypocrite/a double-faced person, a sycophant/a flatterer, a humourist, a whiner/a wet blanket, an overcautiuos man, an adventurer, a slow thinker, a boaster, a leader, a gossip, an egoist, an altruist, a liar, a truth lover/ a truth seeker, a coquette, a critic, a pacifier, a miser, a cool head (one that thinks rationally in times of difficulty), a sitting duck (a person that is easy to offend or injure), a snake in the grass (a person who pretends to be a friend but who at the same time is secretly damaging one), etc. Emotional Attitude In accordance with the emotions overwhelming us we may sound and feel: Surprised, doubtful, bored, interested, curios, mistrustful, hostile, resentful, amiable, hypocritical, angry, irritated, tactful, rude, diplomatic, frustrated, disappointed, upset, sad, delighted, sulky, embarrassed, encouraging, discouraging, indifferent, gloomy, jocose, jovial, enthusiastic, prejudiced, provocative, anxious, etc. Language Function Depending on Our Communicative Aim Our utterances may be aimed at expressing: an opinion, agreement, disagreement, praise, criticism, persuasion, complaint, greeting, leave-taking, inviting, refusing, accepting, disapproval, approval, reprimand, paying compliments, likes, dislikes, encouragement, discouragement, etc. Formality We are more or less formal in our speech depending on our relationship to the person we are speaking to. In accordance with this the vocabulary chosen can be: a) formal b) less formal c) informal. Para-Linguistic Features To be understood in the right way we should be particular about such features as: stress, intonation, rhythm, tone of voice, pitch and loudness. Extra-Linguistic Factors They include gestures and facial expressions, which accompany the language. The number of people participating in the role play may be different. The role play can be organized in small groups consisting of 2-3 people, in groups of 5-7 people as well as in the whole group consisting of 10-15 people. The work can be arranged in the so-called “buzz-groups” when all the groups work simultaneously. The teacher is moving from one group to another to control their work and help if necessary. One more type of work is taking turns when the groups present their role play in turn while the rest of the class and the teacher are listening to them and assessing the role play. The teacher usually does not participate in the role play but if he sometimes has to do it, he performs a minor role. His/her task is to watch the role play, to note down the mistakes without interrupting the role play. After the role play the teacher comments on it expressing praise (first and foremost) and criticism, points out the typical mistakes and arranges correction work. Read an example of a role play given below. Television Situation. At a students’ debating club a discussion is held on the role of television in society. Some students of the British group who are on an exchange visit are participating in it. The discussion is conducted by a well-known journalist. The students are asked to give some serious thought to the following problems: 1. TV and children (whole generations are growing addicted to television). 2. Books versus screen versions. Active pursuits such as reading give way to passive screen-watching. 3. The pros and cons of videocassette TV.
A journalist A psychologist A postgraduate Ann, Mary, Helen – students of the English Department Robert, Caroline, William, Steve – British students
Whose arguments sounded more convincing?
Journalist. Aged 54. You are a well-known journalist. You were invited to lead the discussion. In setting the problems for discussion you are deliberately provocative and extreme. Don’t forget that you started your career as a producer of feature films, so you argue in favour of cinematography. At the end of the discussion you mention your intention to write an article on youth and television and you thank the participants for their valuable contribution. Psychologist. Aged 40. You specialize in child psychology. You are concerned with the impact of TV on children. You state that those addicted to TV have poorly developed speech habits, they become lazy, they read little, do not communicate with each other and their parents, in short, they become passive observers. Postgraduate. Aged 30. You are a postgraduate in audio-visual techniques in teaching. You specialize in educational TV. You are of the opinion that it creates enormous possibilities for education. Close-circuit TV, language teaching, specialized subjects may serve as good examples. You can’t argue that TV replaces reading. But you do not object to a good screen version of a classic as a supplement to the original. Ann. Aged 21. You are a 4-th year student participating in a TV language teaching programme, so you are a real devotee of television. You speak of the great popularity of TV and think that it will definitely oust the film industry since it brings entertainment and even education right into your home. Mary. Aged 22. You are an undergraduate. You praise TV as the shortest and easiest way to gain knowledge. Screen versions of classics have helped you more than once to pass your literature exams. Videocassette TV is a popular way of viewing and you enjoy it very much. Helen. Aged 23. You are a final year student recently married. Both your husband and you believe that TV prevents everybody from going out into the world itself. No second-hand experience for you, only real books, theatres and films. You are convinced that TV deprives you of the enjoyment of entertaining and that it is no substitute for civilized pleasures, for active hobbies and sports. Robert / William. Aged 21. You are one of the British students on an exchange visit. During your stay you are to do a project on the educational value of TV. You say a few words about the Open University as a form of adult education on TV. There are a number of problems under discussion. What particularly concerns you is that people, children especially, read far less. They now prefer screenplays and TV serials to books. Steve / Caroline. Aged 22. You are a British student on an exchange visit. During your stay in the country you are to do a project on TV in Russia. You are present at the discussion of the role of TV in society. Your special interest is the impact of TV on children. You are afraid that children often grow up addicted to the telly and are exposed to rubbish commercials, violence, etc. You’d like to know more about the content of TV programmes in Russia and the most popular children's programmes. As for the psychological type of role, your emotional attitude, you may choose it yourself from the list of those enumerated above. Appendix 4. Writing Bank 1. A SUMMARY is a shorter version of a text. It helps the reader understand the most important information. There are several parts of a summary. a) It contains the main idea or topic of the text. b) It contains the important supporting details of the text. A supporting detail is a fact or example that helps to explain the main idea. c) It contains any definitions of important words. d) It doesn’t contain any of the reader’s opinions or any other information. e) It is approximately one fourth the length of the text. f) It contains no introductions or conclusions. g) It should not contain illustrative details, figures, ideas expressed in a figurative language, repetitions, colourless words like: character, nature, case, manner, kind, sort, etc. E.g. “In spite of the fact” is substituted by “Although”, “Of a courageous character” by “Courageous”,etc. h) Sentences must be re-phrased and re-arranged. 2. AN ESSAY is a piece of writing, usually short and in prose, on any subject. It usually assumes an individual interpretation of facts, giving the writer a chance of self-expression. According to the subject matter and the treatment it receives, essays may be divided into three main types: narrative, descriptive and reflective. The division is by no means clear-cut because most essays have features characteristic of not one particular type, but of several. a) A narrative essay is a description of happenings as they follow one another. It is the easiest to write because the material is arranged according to the actual course of events; one knows where to start and what to do next, each paragraph being devoted to one particular episode or group of episodes. E.g. You have decided to write about a hitch-hiking holiday. It is advisable first to write down a plan with paragraph headings: 1. What made my friend and me decide on a hitch-hiking holiday. 2. Preparations. 3. The holidays: a) setting off, b) the most interesting, amusing or memorable events: 1), 2), 3)… 4. Home again. Some thoughts on the advantages of such a holiday. As an essay rarely belongs to one type only, in addition to describing events in chronological order, you are expected to express your views on the subject as well. Your narrative will also include short descriptions of people and places. For example, you might want to describe an impressive view, a lively scene or a person you met. But your descriptions and reflections should not occupy too much space in relation to the rest of the essay. Take care to preserve the necessary balance. Narrative essays bear a close resemblance to those short stories in which the author describes events as he himself has experienced them. In fact, practically all narrative essays could be classed as short stories. b) A descriptive essay describes people and places at rest. It is more difficult to write because the order in which your ideas follow one another is determined not by the sequence of events, but rather by certain qualities of your ideas and the logical connection between them. You must try to give your essay a clear and logical shape, whether you start from the general and work towards particular or vice versa. Read the following example of a descriptive essay. First Snow The first fall of snow is not only an event but it is a magical event. You go to bed in one kind of world and wake up to find yourself in another, quite different, and if this is not enchantment, then where is it to be found? The very stealth, the eerie quietness of the thing makes it more magical. If all the snow fell at once in one shattering crash, awakening us in the middle of the night, the event would be robbed of its wonder. But it flutters down, soundlessly, hour after hour while we are asleep. Outside the closed curtains of the bedroom a vast transformation scene is taking place, just as if a myriad elves and brownies were at work, and we turn and yawn and stretch and know nothing about it. And then what an extraordinary change it is! It is as if the house you are in has been dropped down in another continent. Even the inside, which has not been touched, seems different, every room appearing smaller and cosier, just as if some power were trying to turn it into a woodcutter’s hut or a snug log-cabin. Outside, where the garden was yesterday, there is now a white and glistening level, and the village beyond is no longer your own familiar cluster of roofs but a village in an old German fairy-tale. You yourselves do not feel quite the same people you were yesterday. How could you when so much has been changed? c) Reflective and argumentative essays are slightly different. The first one is primarily an exercise in contemplation upon any given subject, the second – an exercise testing your ability to discuss a problem, to argue for or against a proposition. In the first you rely more on your imagination, in the second – on general knowledge. Compared with the descriptive and the narrative essays, these are more difficult to write, not only it is more difficult to arrange one’s ideas logically, but also because one has to devote more thought and time to the collection of ideas relevant to the subject. Here a plan is essential. The best way is probably to jot down ideas as they come into your head. Then you can try to group them together and arrange them in the order best suited to your purpose. You can write reflective essays developing the thoughts through analysis, i.e. you start by breaking out the subject into parts, then group the various ideas together and finally arrange them in a suitable order. The greatest amount of space is generally allotted to the description of the author’s own thoughts, feelings, behaviuor, etc. Another type of organization is development by contrast. You organize your pros and cons in separate sections. The main problem in this case is that in the second part you have to remind your readers occasionally about the items contained in the first part. You may contrast pairs instead of sections throughout the essay. Development by contrast is the most forceful means of writing an argumentative essay. Read an example of a reflective essay below: On Beginning (By J.B.Priestly) How difficult it is to make a beginning. I speak of essay writing, an essentially virtuous practice, and not of breaking the ten commandments. It is much easier to begin, say, a review or an article than it is to begin an essay, for with the former you attach yourself to something outside yourself, you have an excuse for writing and therefore have more courage. But to be compelled to spin everything out of oneself, to stand naked and shivering in the very first sentence one puts down, is clearly a very different matter, and this is the melancholy situation in which the essayist always finds himself. It is true that he need not always be melancholy; if he is full of himself, brimming over with bright talk, in a mood to take the whole world into his confidence, the essayist will find his task a very pleasant one indeed, never to be exchanged for such drudge’s work as reviews and articles; and he will step briskly on to the stage and posture in the limelight without a tremour. But such moments are rare, and the essayist at ordinary times, though he would eagerly undertake to defend his craft, cannot quite rid himself of the feeling that there is something both absurd and decidedly impudent in this business of talking about oneself for money; this feeling haunts the back of his mind and it generally produces one of three effects. According to his temperament, it will prevent him from doing anything at all that particular day or perhaps any other day, or it will allow him to write a few brilliant opening sentences and then shut up, or it will keep him from making a start until the last possible moment. Excerpts of an argumentative essay are given below: The Advantages and Disadvantages Of Present Day Life The advantages are clear to anyone who spends time in one of the world’s highly developed nations. The disadvantages of modern life, however, are sometimes not so quickly seen. Consider the average man today in contrast with man 200 years ago. Without doubt, man’s life has been eased considerably. Machines now perform for him many of the services that he previously had to do for himself. They cut his grass, wash his hair, open and close his doors, climb stairs for him, serve him coffee, and both put him to sleep and wake him up to music. In contrast, one finds that progress can also have its drawbacks. It is true that today man moves more swiftly through the world. But in doing so, he often loses track of the roots and traditions that give substance and meaning to life. Nor does the fact that he is better informed through television, radio, newspapers and books necessarily mean that he is wiser than men of earlier generations. Instead, the ease with which the written and spoken words are produced today sometimes seems to lead to the superficiality of thought … . 3. A COMPOSITION presupposes setting out the facts as they are, the primary objective being their accurate and impartial presentation. Unlike in an essay, no individual interpretation is needed. In a composition the writer assembles facts, in an essay – his/her own ideas, opinions and feelings. Syntax in Writing a) Put statements in positive form: E.g. Did not remember - forgot Did not have much confidence in – mistrusted b) Avoid a succession of simple sentences. c) Combine ideas logically. d) Avoid unnecessary words: E.g. Owing to the fact that – since, because The fact that he did not succeed – his failure After a short period of time – after a while. e) Avoid tautology – repetition of words close in meaning: E.g. I happened to meet her by chance – I met her by chance. Transition Signals To connect the paragraphs, sentences and clauses we use transition words or connectives. 1) To list ideas in time order or order of importance: First, firstly, first of all, initially, from the very beginning, now, at this time, at present, presently, now and then, second, further, soon, later, some time later, a little later, after this, just after, afterwards, then, next, after that, from then on, meanwhile, in the meantime, at the same time, all this time, by and by, gradually, after some time, in a while, after a while, his/her next step was, until then, until that time, finally, eventually, at last, in the end. 2) To add another idea: And, also, furthermore, in addition to, finally, moreover, besides, apart from it. 3) To add an opposite idea: But, yet, although, even though, however, on the other hand, nevertheless, nor, unlike, by contrast. 4) To add a similar idea: And, also, likewise, similarly. 5) To give an example: For example, for instance. 6) To give a cause or reason: As, for, because, since. 7) To give an effect or result: So, therefore, consequently, thus, as a result, hence. 8) To add a conclusion: All in all, in brief, indeed, in other words, in short, in the end, to sum it up. 9) To generalize: Generally, in general, on the whole, for the most part. 10) To affirm: Certainly, of course. 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Английский языкдля студентов факультетов иностранных языков педагогических вузов IV курс УчебникТ.П. Куренкова, Л.П. Загорная, Г.В. Ильина, Л.П. Морозова, Г.Н. Сидельникова Компьютерный набор и макетирование: Е.Ф. КуренковТ.П. КуренковаРедакторы: Л.П. ШахроваН.И. Морозова Лицензия ПД № 18-0062 от 20.12.2000 ________________________________________________________________ Подписано к печати Формат 60 х 90 1/16. Печ. л. Тираж экз. Заказ Цена договорная ________________________________________________________________ Типография НГЛУ им. Н.А. Добролюбова 603155, Н. Новгород, ул. Минина, 31а |
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