Учреждения высшего образования
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UNEMPLOYMENTWe say that unemployment exists where people capable and willing to work are unable to find suitable paid employment. But where an economy is adapting to changing conditions, there will always be some persons unemployed as they change jobs or as seasonal work comes to an end. Unemployment may occur for many different reasons. There will always be some people changing jobs. In certain occupations, e.g. unskilled labour in the construction industry, workers are not employed regularly by one employer. When a contract is completed, labour is not required. Occasionally workers are discharged when a factory is being reorganized. Unemployed workers usually register at the local employment exchange from which employers can hire them. The unemployed are paid certain benefits. Employment in some industries, e.g. building, fruit picking is seasonal in character. Seasonal employment can be reduced out of "season" and admit such persons as students and housewives during the busy period. Sometimes there are unemployed workers of a particular occupation in one part of the country but a shortage of the same type of work in other parts. Thus today there is a surplus of unskilled and manual labourers in the north of England, whereas firms in the London area have vacancies unfilled. Two main reasons can be suggested for this type of unemployment — ignorance of opportunities and immobility of labour. Workers may be in "between jobs". Some of them are looking for better jobs, others are seeking better salaries. Young people search for their first jobs. This is called "frictional unemployment". This type is usually short-term and regarded as inevitable. In some situations workers find that their skills and experience are unwanted by these changes. This type of employment is more long-term and regarded as more serious. It is known as structural unemployment. The full-employment or natural rate of unemployment ranges between 5 and 6 percent. Questions: 1.Why does unemployment exist in transitional economy? 2. What are the reasons for unemployment? 3. How can the unemployed get paid benefits? 4. What is seasonable unemployment? 5. What is unemployment caused by? 6. What is considered to be a natural rate of unemployment? WHOLESALINGWholesalers are the institutions which stand between the manufacturer and the retailer. A wholesaler buys goods in bulk from producers and sells them in small quantities to retailers. In doing so he helps the production process. If you had an intention to be a successful manufacturer, you would make high quality products at a reasonable price for selected markets. If you intended to be a wholesaler, you would learn how to serve the market. Wholesaler economizes the distribution. The most important function of a wholesaler is to contact manufacturers and potential customers. Thus nine contacts and deliveries arc necessary if three firms supply directly three retailers, where each producer deals only with a wholesaler, reducing the total number of transactions to six. Wholesalers are used for information and advice. Suggestions which customers make to the retailer are passed to the wholesaler who conveys them to the manufacturer. Thus the latter can improve his product. A wholesaler keeps stocks. Shoppers like to obtain goods immediately. This requires stocks. Often, however, neither the producer nor the retailer has extensive storage facilities, and responsibility falls on the wholesaler. Moreover, he arranges imports from abroad. Foreign manufacturers can rarely bother to ship small parcels to individual retailers abroad. They prefer to deal with a wholesaler, an import merchant with established trade connections. Manufacturers can establish their own wholesaling office or branch, the latter providing more services to its customers. Depending on the industry or geographical location merchant wholesalers are called distributors, jobbers, or dealers. Among merchandise agents there are selling agents, brokers, commission agents and action companies. They are all compensated by either a commission or a brokerage fee. Questions: 1. What kind of institutions are wholesalers? 2. What is the most important function of a wholesaler? 3. How can a manufacturer improve his product? 4. Does a wholesaler import from abroad? 5. How can wholesalers be classified? RETAILING The retailer performs thelast stage of the production process, for it is he who puts the goods in the hands of the actual customers. His work is "to have the right goods in the right place at the right time." There are four types of retail institutions: 1) speciality stores; 2) supermarkets, 3) general merchandise stores, 4) nonstore retailing. Often speciality stores sell one type of product, such as clothing, jewelry, furniture, books. These stores having a better feeling of their market, they compete against giant department stores. They can adjust more quickly to market conditions. Big supermarkets are usually well located. All the goods are arranged on trays and shelves. All the prices are clearly marked. The goods are ready-weighed and beautifully packed. There you can find everything you need. The prices are reasonable. General merchandise stores (GMS) carry a wide variety of products. There are three types of GMS: a) department stores, b) discount stores, c) hypermarkets. Big department stores started in America more than 50 years ago, and then the idea was brought to European countries. These stores are wonderful places. People can do all their shopping under one roof. All the things for sale are displayed so that they can be easily seen, and the customers walk around and choose what they want. The store is divided into departments: women's clothes, men's clothes, shoes, toys, sports goods, china and glass, etc. There may be a restaurant with an orchestra and sometimes a tea-room as well. Low price is the major attraction of the discount stores. These stores self the most popular items, colors and sizes. The stores keep long hours and are usually open on Sundays. Hypermarket is a type of discount store that was developed in Germany. They are very large stores with low-price and high-turnover products. Hypermarkets achieve cost savings by simplifying their unpacking and display. There are three major types of nonstore retailing: a) vending machines; b) door-to-door sales, and c) catalogue sales. Questions: 1. What is the function of a retailer's work? 2. How can retail institutions be classified? 3. What can you say about the speciality stores and big supermarkets? 4. What did you come to know about discount stores? 5. What types of nonstore retailing do you know? HISTORY OF MONEY (part 1) These days money is hi-tech. We have notes and coins which are specially made. We use credit cards. Banks and stock exchanges can move millions at the touch of a button. But how did money develop? Where, for example, were notes and coins first produced? Why? What did people use as money before that? Each country has its own individual culture. That's as true today as it was thousands of years ago. But although nations vary enormously, in some ways they're all the same. Each has developed its own language, for example - its own religion, arts, form of government; and of course, its own money. So money is universal - but why? The answer's very simple. Without it trade would be impossible/and people in any society need to exchange goods in order to survive. OK, so money is necessary, but what kind of money? Well, in the past most societies used objects. Some of these were valuable because they were rare and beautiful — others because they could be eaten or used. There are some examples... (and where they were used) Animal skins Alaska/Canada/Russia/Scandinavia Beads Africa/Canada Feathers North America Fish hooks Gilbert Islands* Grain India Knives China Rats Easter Island* Salt Nigeria Shells Thailand/Paraguay Stones Yap* Tobacco America Whale teeth Fiji* * Islands in the Pacific Ocean. (part 2) BEFORE COINS Early forms of money were used to buy goods. They were also used to pay for marriages, fines, and debts. But although everyday objects were extremely practical kinds of cash in many ways, they had disadvantages, too. For example, it was difficult to... • measure their value accurately. • divide some of them into' a wide range of amounts. • keep some of them for a long time. • use them to make financial plans for the future. For reasons such as these, some societies began to use another kind of money. This consisted of precious metals which were cut into small pieces and weighed. People in Mesopotamia (now part of Iraq) began doing this about 4,500 years ago. Later, gold and silver money appeared in Ancient Egypt, China and elsewhere, too. The new metal money was an important advance for four reasons. 1. It was easy to carry. 2. It lasted a long time. 3. It could be divided into lots of different values. 4. It made planning for the future much easier. But although pieces of silver or gold were an advance, they still weren't exactly coins. They had no fixed shape and weren't clearly marked so that everyone could recognize them. Questions: 1. What were the reasons for usage of metal money? 2. What disadvantages did the things used as money have? (part 3) |
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