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Министерство спорта, туризма и молодежной политики Российской Федерации Министерство по делам молодежи, спорту и туризму Республики Татарстан Федеральное государственное образовательное учреждение высшего профессионального образования «Поволжская государственная академия физической культуры, спорта и туризма» СПОРТИВНОЕ НАСЛЕДИЕ УНИВЕРСИАДЫ-2013 МАТЕРИАЛЫ МЕЖДУНАРОДНОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКОЙ КОНФЕРЕНЦИИ 28-29 октября 2010 Казань – 2010 ББК 75 С 73 С 73 СПОРТИВНОЕ НАСЛЕДИЕ УНИВЕРСИАДЫ-2013 : материалы Международной научно-практической конференции (28-29 октября 2010). – Казань: Поволжская ГАФКСиТ, 2010 - 408 с. В сборнике представлены материалы Международной научно-практической конференции, отражающие проблемы, связанные с формированием спортивного наследия и стратегией развития студенческого спорта в период подготовки Универсиады – 2013, теоретические, практические, медико-биологические и гуманитарные аспекты подготовки спортивного резерва и высококвалифицированных спортсменов. Редакционная коллегия: Ю.Д. Якубов, ректор Поволжской ГАФКСиТ, кандидат политических наук (ответственный редактор) Ф.Р. Зотова, д.п.н., профессор, проректор по научной работе и внешним связям Поволжской ГАФКСиТ Н.С. Тарасова, начальник отдела информационно-аналитической и научно работы Министерства по делам молодежи, спорту и туризму РТ А.Р. Кадыров, заместитель генерального директора исполнительной Дирекции ХХVII Всемирной летней универсиады 2013 г. в г. Казани Н.Ш. Фазлеев, заведующий кафедрой физической культуры и спорта КГФЭИ © Поволжская ГАФКСиТ, 2010 © Исполнительная дирекция XXVII Всемирной летней универсиады 2013 года в г. Казани, 2010 ПЛЕНАРНОЕ ЗАСЕДАНИЕ КОНЦЕПЦИЯ СОЗДАНИЯ И ОРГАНИЗАЦИИ ДЕЯТЕЛЬНОСТИ ПОВОЛЖСКОЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЙ АКАДЕМИИ ФИЗИЧЕСКОЙ КУЛЬТУРЫ, СПОРТА И ТУРИЗМА Ю.Д. Якубов Поволжская государственная академия физической культуры, спорта и туризма Казань, Россия Уважаемый коллеги, участники конференции, гости! Общие тенденции развития и модернизации российского образования, потребность в качественной подготовке высококвалифицированных специалистов и спортсменов высокого класса, строительство современных высокотехнологических спортивных объектов для XXVII Всемирной летней универсиады 2013 года в Казани в соответствии с требованиями FISU – это главные факторы, определившие создание Поволжской государственной академии физической культуры, спорта и туризма путем перевода Камской государственной академии физической культуры, спорта и туризма из г. Набережные Челны в г. Казань. Победа Казани на право проведения Всемирных летних студенческих игр в 2013 году подтверждает готовность города к этому процессу, т.к. в последствие строящиеся спортивные объекты должны войти как спортивно-тренировочные базы в состав спортивного вуза. В связи с чем, Министерством спорта, туризма и молодежной политики Российской Федерации по предложению Правительства Республики Татарстан и при поддержке Президента Республики Татарстан Р.Н.Минниханова принято решение (приказ Минспорттуризма России от 16.07.2010 г. №729) о переводе Камской государственной академии физической культуры, спорта и туризма в г. Казань с переименованием вуза в Поволжскую государственную академию физической культуры, спорта и туризма с сохранением филиала вуза в г. Набережные Челны. В результате осмысления опыта в образовательной, научно-исследовательской, спортивно-педагогической, воспитательной областях деятельности высших учебных заведений в сфере физической культуры и спорта; анализа отечественного и зарубежного опыта по подготовке кадров для массовой физической культуры, спорта высших достижений, оздоровительной, досугово-рекреативной и иных смежных форм социальных практик, востребованных в современном обществе, была разработана Концепция создания и развития Поволжской государственной академии физической культуры, спорта и туризма, основные компоненты которой представлены вашему вниманию. Изучение зарубежного опыта работы высшей школы Китая, Бразилии, Мексики, Индии, Германии, Канады, США, Франции, Японии показывает, что в этих странах точками инновационного роста, которые решали бы важнейшие задачи интеллектуального и кадрового обеспечения повышения конкурентоспособности макрорегионов становятся университеты, реализующие особую миссию – миссию агентов развития. Российская Федерация и регионы остро нуждаются в формировании сети учебных заведений, являющихся агентами инновационного развития. Первым учебным заведением нового типа в сфере физической культуры, спорта и туризма может и должна стать создаваемая ФГОУ ВПО «Поволжская государственная академия физической культуры, спорта и туризма». Важнейшей миссией Академии как крупного центра физкультурно-спортивного и педагогического образования, студенческого спорта, науки и культуры Республики Татарстан и Российской Федерации является формирование, в рамках существующих у вуза возможностей, физкультурно-спортивной и педагогической элиты, способной: 1) к генерации и реализации идей; 2) к активной образовательной, оздоровительной, научной, спортивной и иной продуктивной деятельности на уровне современных мировых стандартов; 3) к серьезному духовно-нравственному и культурному влиянию на общественное сознание. Задача международного позиционирования Поволжского макрорегиона также потребует активной роли академии, прежде всего, как центра компетенций и экспертизы. Несомненно, что ключевой функцией, которую будет выполнять академия, является широкая подготовка современных кадров и кадров «опережающего типа» на основе инновационного развития. При этом новая академия должна превратиться в лидера формирования новых и развития существующих кадров региональных вузов, научных организаций, спортивных клубов. Академия может занять важное место в модернизации всей системы физкультурно-спортивного образования в округе и в России. За счет привлечения потенциала других вузов к исследовательским и инновационным программам будет обеспечен обмен идеями и лучшими практиками. Академия будет активно способствовать культурно-образовательному развитию столицы Татарстана, выполнять необходимую для города и республики просветительскую, интегративную и модернизационную миссию. Казань станет площадкой, на которой будут отрабатываться новые подходы к развитию физической культуры, спорта и туризма, модели оздоровительной, досугово-рекреативной деятельности, разрабатываемые в академии. Для успешного осуществления данных функций необходима последовательная ориентация вуза на единые международные стандарты качества высшего образования, на усиление информационно-технического обеспечения научного, образовательного и тренировочного процессов, открытости вуза, мобильности студентов и персонала, совместимости образовательных программ, укрепление общероссийского и международного авторитета академии. Основой образования в вузе должны стать научные исследования, обеспечивающие инновационный характер его развития, рейтинговые показатели, высокое качество как ключевые характеристики современного мирового образования. Исходя из этого, целью является становление академии как крупного федерального и международного центра физкультурно-спортивного и педагогического образования, студенческого спорта, науки и культуры, способствующего национальному развитию, усилению интеллектуального, духовно-нравственного, спортивного потенциала общества, укреплению взаимопонимания между людьми, народами и государствами. Соответственно в качестве задач создания и развития академии выступают:
Необходимость комплексного решения указанных задач позволяет выделить три основных приоритета в развитии академии на период 2010-2015 гг.:
Такая система приоритетов позволит выстроить максимально эффективную и результативную траекторию развития академии в современных условиях модернизации отечественного образования, стратегии развития физической культуры и спорта, создания инновационной экономики, усиления интеллектуального, духовного и культурного потенциала общественного развития. Названные приоритеты определяют направления и сферы первоочередного инвестирования внутренних и вневузовских ресурсов, формируют систему ресурсов развития непрерывного физкультурно-спортивного и педагогического образования, науки и культуры, подготовки конкурентоспособных спортсменов, специалистов, научно-педагогических кадров данного профиля. В рамках первого направления деятельности «Утверждение академии в роли базового ресурсно-координационного центра региональной системы непрерывного физкультурно-спортивного и педагогического образования» следует выделить следующие разделы работы:
Первый раздел предусматривает следующее:
Второй раздел работы предусматривает следующее:
Третий раздел работы предусматривает следующее:
Четвертый раздел работы предусматривает следующее:
В рамках второго направления деятельности «Интеграция академии в мировое образовательно-научное, спортивное и культурное пространство» следует выделить следующие разделы работы:
Первый раздел работы второго направления деятельности предусматривает следующее:
Второй раздел работы предусматривает следующее:
Третий раздел работы предусматривает следующее:
И, наконец, в рамках третьего направления деятельности «Реализация материально-технических, научных, образовательных и иных условий для инновационного развития отечественного спорта, физической культуры и туризма» следует выделить также три раздела работы:
Первый раздел работы предусматривает следующее:
Второй раздел работы предусматривает следующее:
Третий раздел работы предусматривает следующее:
Последовательная реализация указанных приоритетов и ключевых ориентиров позволит достигнуть устойчивого развития академии как одного из ведущих учреждений региона и страны в области образовательной, научной и практической инновационной деятельности в сфере физической культуры и спорта и повышения на этой основе его конкурентоспособности. UNDERSTANDING THE SOCIAL LEGACY OF MEGA SPORTING EVENTS - LINKING THEORY TO PRACTICE Katharine Hughes and VassilGirginov Brunel University, England In July 2012, London will play host to the 30th Olympic and the Paralympic Games (London 2012 Games). Through a network of communications, thousands of spectators will be joined by millions more people across the globe taking part in the world’s largest sporting event. Past experience indicates that over the period of the four weeks a breath-taking drama of passion, excitement, success and tragedy will unfold leaving a wealth of memories for both participants and the audience. However, mega sporting events are now expected to deliver much more than a limited period of elite sporting competition. Legacy development (and moreover positive legacy) has become a watch word as host cities and international sports organisations look to justify vast sums of public sector investment when there is a whole range of national social issues also demanding financial support (Preuss 2006, Preuss and Solberg 2006). The concept of legacy is not a new one, indeed Cashman (1998 p 138) notes, “almost every Olympic city [mega-event], since the Games were revived in 1896, has some form of legacy”. What is new is the planning for legacy. This is no more apparent than in bidding to host the world’s largest sporting event; the Olympic and Paralympic Games, where the concept of legacy has increasingly become a feature of its vocabulary and that of its current President, Jacques Rogge. The idea of Olympic legacy has been rationalized politically, legally, and scientifically. In this paper, we examine this notion of legacy of mega sporting events with specific reference to the London 2012 Games and a number of other events, many of which we have been practically involved. First is infrastructure, which is integral to further economic development; second is the contribution of the event to business vitality and economic development; and third is the ability to attract events that are seen as a positive demonstration of a host city/region/nation to compete. In a practical illustration of this proposal, a review of the four summer Olympics, Barcelona 1992 – Athens 2004 concluded that economic benefits may benefit employment (or reduced unemployment), skills development, be a catalyst for renewal and the acceleration of infrastructure projects and provide intangible benefits to the host city/region/nation economy of promotion and/or rebranding from media coverage which in turn produces tangible inward investment. The methodology of economic impact studies attracts considerable debate, in particular that such studies tend to be made in advance and are commissioned by proponents of the event (Kasmati 2003, Cashman 2003, 2005). Kesenne (2005), in using a numerical example of a fictional international sports event points out that economic impact studies generally measure only the flow of money into the country and the additional income created. He promotes the need for performing cost-benefit analyses to sort out what are the benefits for the local population and which of the money flows are to be considered a cost. Cashman (2003) identifies four periods during which the impact of a mega-event on a host city can be reviewed and suggests it is in the preparatory phase of bidding for the event that overestimated benefits and underestimated costs are likely to be stated with most conviction. The LERI (2007) study demonstrated that operating and infrastructure costs exceeded the event bid projections in all four host cities and despite the claim made by the London 2012 bid team of robust fiscal plans (BOA 2004), it is already known that this will also be the case for London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games (London 2012 Games). Coalter (2008) suggests that it is because of this variance that an increased emphasis is being placed on the non-economic, often intangible benefits of major sport events. It has been argued that even where there is a financial loss to organisers, net gains are felt by the host community (Dwyer et al 2000). Green et al (2003) and Haxton (1999) suggest much of the publicised rationale behind hosting major events is based on potential benefits to the community and from a review of the available evidence, Murphy and Baumann conclude that ‘‘major events may result in diverse community benefits including new sporting facilities, improved transport, social cohesion, community volunteerism and the enhancement of national sporting culture’’. Despite this growth in recognition of its significance, empirical studies on the identification and evaluation of the wide ranging aspects of social legacy, particularly in relation to major sport events, are not well developed (Haxton 1999, Coalter 2008). A multitude of headings can be found that might relate to the term social legacy: quality of life; education; community cohesion; school exercise and talent identification in sport were discussed under this term by the Fabian society (2006), Fredline et al (2003), in reviewing the potential to develop a scale to measure social impacts, refer also to employment opportunities, availability of facilities to the public and property values and Frawley et al (2009 p3) note that ‘inspiring people to themselves participate in sport’’ is promoted by governments as a public benefit to hosting sporting events. In this paper, social legacy will be explored under three main headings: human and social capital; education and sport, the latter being the major focus of the discourse. Social and human capital From the very early stages of the bidding process through to final delivery requires the development of extended social and business networks (Solberg and Preuss 2007). Anecdotal evidence suggests that one of the early successes of the London 2012 ‘CompeteFor’2 is the generation of new business links at local, regional and national level and the introduction of small and medium size businesses to the services provided by Regional Development Agencies. On an international level, ‘Business Club Australia’ developed for Sydney 2000 has continued to promote Australian business using major sport events such as the Rugby World Cup 2003 and the Commonwealth Games in 2006 (Taylor and Edmundson 2007), and the North West Business Club, originally formed to support the Manchester Commonwealth Games 2002, has staged events linked to the UEFA Women’s Euro Championships and the annual Tour of Britain cycle race, in addition to providing a range of on and off line business support services (Potter 2008). The development of human capital - skills and abilities of those involved in the planning and delivery of an event - is considered to be a desirable legacy of an event which may add to the attraction of a city or region to stage further events (Solberg and Preuss 2007). However, a number of stakeholders interviewed for the 2002 Commonwealth Games Benefits Study felt that too many people had been employed from the ‘circus’ of event companies and individuals who travel around the world working on events and that opportunities to leave a legacy of event management skills in the North West of England were missed (Faber and Maunsell 2004). The tourism sector of the host city or region may be boosted by the upgrading of skills in the service sector through bespoke courses run by event organizing committees, for example English courses for taxi drivers were provided for the Olympics in Seoul 1996 and Athens 2004 and the FIFA World Cup in Germany in 2006. Although limited in number, studies of volunteers’ learning and experiences do demonstrate a perceived increase in job skills. A survey of the volunteers at the Commonwealth Games in Manchester 2002 showed that 47% of volunteers felt they had acquired new skills and capabilities through their experiences and 46% agreed that being a games volunteer had enhanced their personal development (Faber and Maunsell 2004). Misener and Mason (2006) explore the potential of hosting sporting events on the development of social infrastructure through the concept of social capital. Social capital is a much debated topic which has gained increasing status as “academics and politicians alike have searched for ways to conceptualize social, economic, demographic and political changes and their impact on communities” (Nicholson and Hoye 2008 p7). Discussion is predominantly generated from three main theorists, Bourdieu, Coleman and Putnam where, although interpretations differ, “social capital is taken to refer to the social networks based on social and group norms which enable people to trust and cooperate with each other and through which individuals or groups can obtain certain types of advantage” (Coalter 2007 p540). Misener and Mason (2006) put forward four propositions that if addressed would provide opportunities for community development and social capital: community values should be central to all decision making processes; various stakeholders, particularly community interest groups should be involved in strategic activities related to events; collaborative action should empower local communities to become agents of change and finally open communication and mutual learning throughout strategic activities related to events must be maintained to minimize power brokering. They build on a point identified by Putnam (2000), that opportunities for participation in community events have decreased and that sporting events do bring large numbers of people together and involve the community in activities such as planning, volunteering and consumption of the event. Even when such a strategic approach is taken, there is still concern that a top-down approach is taken in the actual planning and implementation of activities linked to legacy programmes. Positive, sustainable legacies are more likely to be achieved where there is practical community engagement enabling local capacity building (Smith and Fox 2007). Building on the lessons learned from the Manchester Commonwealth Games and, in particular, that within less than three years the trails leading to the majority of legacy programme activities were at best only warm, the Women’s Euro 2005 Legacy Programme (Euro LP) looked to improve on the sustainability of its activities. A network of regional teams was established across the North West of England, each consisting of a range of stakeholders from the private and public sectors. In this way, it was possible at a community level to identify specific needs in planning, build capacity in delivery and engage with existing organisations or projects to act as exit routes for the projects associated with Euro LP, increasing both its take up and sustainability (Potter 2008). This approach has been developed on a wider scale for the London 2012 Games, with the provision of a ‘Nations and Regions Group’ (NRG), formed by twelve senior representatives from each of the Home Countries and a further nine regional representatives from England. Each NRG representative Chairs a group in their respective regions which are charged with promoting activities to maximise the benefits of hosting the Games, these range from assisting businesses to win contracts to inspiring young people to become more physically active. The NRG Group is considered invaluable by London 2012 Organising Committee for the Olympic Games (LOCOG). It facilitates a direct point of contact making the communication of information, ‘‘workable and easier’’ (London 2012 2010). This attempt to engage wider communities at a local level is supported by the observation that positive legacy is only created as a result of community engagement in major sport events transforming them into something in which people can feel a sense of ownership, where the image being portrayed is one with which they feel comfortable and the event is a positive experience for both hosts and guests (Haxton 2000, Hillier 1990). The London 2012 Games have developed a unique programme, ‘Inspire Mark’. Non -commercial organisations are invited to submit proposals for activities and events ‘inspired’ by the Games’ values. Successful bids are awarded the ‘mark’, which as part of the London 2012 brand family, includes the 2012 logo. At time of writing, over 500 projects have been awarded the mark, which is being seen as an innovative way to give communities across the country that feeling of ownership: it answers the question, ‘what’s it (the London 2012 Games) got to do with me?’ Education A number of national sporting bodies and international sports organisations have used the staging of a major sporting event as an opportunity to produce schools’ educational resources to contribute to a wider legacy. Examples include Edrugby, an online resource produced by Australian Rugby for the World Cup in 2003, the Euro 2004 and 2005 packs produced by The Football Association, and the Paralympic World Cup 2008 Educational Resource website. The London 2012 Games have produced the ‘Get Set: Inspiring Children and Young People’ programme. Schools and Colleges initially register on-line which allows them to access a range of web based resources in addition to receiving hard copy materials and regular updates on the programme’s activities. An additional eight theme programme Get Set+ provides further resources produced by London 2012 partners. Themes include, Internationalism and School learning; Health Active Lifestyles and Sustainability and Regeneration . Higher and Further education (HE and FE) has generally concerned itself with the staging of major sport events providing services such as skills training for employees and volunteers, research, games time venues, accommodation and pre-games training camps. A notable contribution has been shown to be made by higher education to the medals haul at events such as Olympic and Paralympic Games. In outlining the importance that the sector will play in determining the 2012 medal winners it was illustrated that 65% of athletes representing Team GB at Athens (accumulating 15 medals of the Team GB total of 30) and 67% for Beijing had either attended university or were doing so at the time they competed and won (Potter 2009). Sport ATKearney (2005) suggests that a sports legacy is the most obvious outcome of a major sport event. event”. The most tangible is the facilities where there are mixed reports of whether or not they have become positive legacy for the communities. In terms of high performance sport, the Winter Olympics in Calgary are considered to be an exemplary case. An endowment fund created from its profits is used to support local and national elite athletes’ use of facilities (Mc Cloy 2002), but accessibility is a concern for marginalized community groups who cannot afford the entrance fees to either the Olympic park or the specialist facilities (Robinson 2002). Advance planning for a positive legacy of facility use appears to be a key issue. Professional, high performance and community sport work in a symbiotic relationship at the City of Manchester stadium and surrounding facilities built for the Commonwealth Games in 2002 but conversely Mangan (2008 p1869) reports of “too many limping white elephants” that have littered Olympic venues such as Sydney and Atlanta as well as reports of non-sustainable venues being demolished post the FIFA World Cup in 2003. A further concern is that funding for elite sport mega-events may divert funds away from local sport and community-based initiatives (EdComs 2007). In keeping with the experiences of Sydney and Athens where funding for grass-roots sports participation was reallocated to the Olympic cause (Fox and Brown 2007), the London 2012 Games has already seen £1.1bn transferred from lottery funding to help pay for the rising costs of the Games (Kelso 2008). This in turn has had negative knock on effect for sports lottery funded projects at a regional and local level (Girginov and Hills 2008, Mangan 2008). A more positive legacy has been left from the Los Angeles Olympics of 1984. Surplus funds were used to establish the LA84 Foundation a non-profit making organisation which supports youth sport and the advancement of sports knowledge through the provision of scholarships (LA84 Foundation 2009) The potential for increased sports participation is often promoted as a positive legacy of major sport events and elite sports performance. Weed et al (2009) cite examples from Australia, New Zealand and the USA where politicians have proposed that elite athletic performance has the ability to inspire increased sporting participation. In addition, publicity material and the candidature file for the London 2012 bid promised that staging the games would increase sports participation for all ages and abilities (BOA 2004, London 2012 2005). However, although it may be felt that major sport events inspire grass roots sports participation, the evidence for a sports development legacy from major sport events is negligible (Veal 2003, Coalter 2004, 2008, Murphy and Baumann 2007). Weed et al (2009) reviewed the evidence base for developing physical activity, sport and health legacies from the London 2012 Games and suggested that different strategies need to be taken with different groups based on their current levels of active participation. Existing or lapsed participants in sport may have their interest rekindled or further stimulated by the demonstration effect, in which people are inspired by former, current or existing athletes. The caveats to this approach are that it only relates to current or past sports participants, it may result in an overall neutral effect due to activity switching and some people may be put off by the inaccessibility of elite sport. A second group of people are those who have not considered participation and for whom the 2012 Games may be a catalyst to consider some form of physical activity or informal sport for perceived social or community benefits. This festival effect relies on the event being promoted and recognised as a celebratory event; a festival that transcends sport and engages with local communities and their cultures. The most widely reported claims of event related increase in sports participation relate to England’s Rugby World Cup victory in 2003. Figures released at the end of 2004, obtained from Rugby Football Union (RFU) member clubs demonstrated an overall 16% rise in participation and 32% in the 7-11 year age group (Barton 2008) However, although the 2003 victory was further publicised through the nationwide Sweet Chariot Tour, it was also preceded by the launch of the RFU’s IMPACT strategy and pre the 2007 World Cup it launched ‘Go Play Rugby’. This example supports the idea that to use a major sport event to create legacy, it needs to be part of wider programme to leverage opportunities. In the words of Girginov and Hills “legacies are created not given”. There is some consensus that advance planning and additional activities are required to maximise the benefits of mega-events ( Hindson et al 1994, Coalter 2004, 2008, Sport and Recreation Victoria 2006, Wang and Theodoraki 2007, Potter 2008, 2009, Weed et 2009). At the same time, a general conclusion from the evidence available is that merely hosting an event is not enough to leave a legacy of sustainable sports development (Weed et al 2009, NWDA 2010) and there is a need for all stakeholders to engage in the process of leveraging legacy. It is also suggested that to promote a sustainable legacy, activities should be linked to wider strategic development programmes. This approach has been adopted by Manchester City Council who, further to the success of hosting the Commonwealth Games in 2002, established an Events team to oversee their strategy of bringing major events to the City. The team’s role in to ensure that the council’s interests are met within each event in terms of ‘‘branding, legacy activities, access for school children, coach education opportunities, press coverage; everything that comes out of an event’’ (Leisure Review 2010 p1). This involves working with a number of partners on a local, regional and national scale to maximise the opportunities. Manchester, which through ‘‘intelligent use of its facilities’’ is ‘‘ bringing elite sport to the grass roots and bringing long term benefits to individuals and to their communities’’ (Leisure Review 2010 p2). An integrated approach to leveraging legacy does make it difficult to quantify the specific event effect. In exploring the link between London 2012 and sports participation, Girginov and Hills (2008) suggest we will probably never know for certain how the games affect sports participation and what we need to understand is how the concept of legacy is being constructed, the processes involved and whether this can deliver sustainable sports development. Future research Kate Hughes’ on-going research builds on the recommendation of Girginov and Hills (2008), working with a number of National Governing Bodies of Sport (NGBs) to investigate and assess their contribution to the delivery of London’s 2012 initial legacy ‘promise’3. Starting at the level of policy makers and working through to those involved in the delivery of programmes, it proposes the use of a realist evaluation framework (Pawson and Tilley 2007) to explore the ‘effects, inner workings, connections and operations’(Coalter 2007 p36) of the current delivery plans. Central to a realist evaluation is ‘‘to find ways of identifying, articulating, testing and refining conjectured CMO configurations’’ (Pawson and Tilley 2007 p77). In studying the relative success of the programmes (their capacity to deliver sustainable sports development), the Context – Mechanism – Outcome configuration looks to demonstrate what it is about the programme delivery that works for whom and in what circumstances. Pawson and Tilley (2007) suggest that it is the development of CMO configurations which facilitates the development of transferable and cumulative lessons from research. The researcher is not looking for representative programmes which work universally but sees the process of CMO configurations and refinements as the ‘‘creation of middle range theories which provide analytic frameworks to interpret similarities and differences between families of programs’’ (Pawson and Tiley 2007 p217). Based on personal experience of the impacts of legacy programmes, it is anticipated that the ‘outcomes’ will not only embrace the contexts and mechanisms of the behavioural change of participants towards sports participation but also associated issues relating to the development of human and social capital, such as skill development, community revitalization and social inclusion. Conclusion : This paper has considered the notion of legacy of mega sporting events and, in particular, three aspects of social legacy, in terms of education, social and human capital, and sport. The potential for community benefits is seen to be an area that commands increasing attention particularly from politicians and event promoters however it is identified that empirical based evaluation of such potential is not well developed. The potential for a legacy of increased mass sport participation is a classic example of the contrast between rhetoric and research. Building on the notion that elite sport success inspires increased sport participation (the ‘trickle-down’ effect), a major focus of the London 2012 bid was the potential for enhanced nation-wide sports development. Publicity material produced in association with the bid claimed that the Games would deliver a step-change in the nation’s physical activity and that an already sports-mad nation would get fitter and healthier (Vigor et al 2004, Coalter 2008). The London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games make an interesting case study to develop this debate as it is the first time that the host country has purposefully set out to deliver a legacy of increased sport and physical activity participation (Weed et al 2009). The UK initial government’s policy document on London 2012 legacy development, Our Promise for 2012 (DCMS 2007), outlined five key ‘promises’ headed by the first, to ’make the UK a world-leading nation’. This ‘Promise’ had three key headline ambitions: Inspiring young people through sport; Getting more people active; and Elite achievement. In the case of the ambition, ‘Getting more people active’, responsibility lies with Sport England, England’s leading public sector sports development agency who are charged with the task of creating a world leading community sport system (DCMS 2008b). Sport England’s vision for this system is that it will deliver a growing number of people playing community sport, identify talent at an early age and provide the pathways through to the elite level and, provide everyone who plays sport with the opportunity for a quality experience and to fulfil their potential. The available evidence from the studies reviewed suggests that this social legacy of sports participation will not be automatically nor easily achieved. We propose that in the lead up to the Games, a study of the ways in which organizations plan to leverage opportunities for growth in participation should therefore be a matter of keen interest for researchers of the major sports events such as the Olympic Games specifically and of sport development more generally. By exploring how such organizations frame the concept of legacy and by focusing both on the processes of leverage and the outcomes, we may be able move on the discussion around the often quoted, but seemingly unsubstantiated, claims for a legacy of positive sports development associated with the hosting of a mega sporting event. 1:‘‘Sport For All’’ is a collective term used to describe a range of policies adopted by Governments to promote active participation in the community’’. Since it origins in the Council of Europe during the 1960s, it has been embraced by governments worldwide and the IOC as a policy to promote community health and well being particularly against a background of concerns about the rise in obesity amongst children and young people. 2: CompeteFor is an online site of London 2012 for the publication of London 2012 Games-related contract opportunities. It acts as a brokerage service between buyers throughout the London 2012 supply chain, and potential suppliers. 3: The UK General Election in May 2010 resulted in a Coalition government being formed between the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats. In June 2010, at a meeting of the British Olympic Association, Hugh Roberston, the new Minister for Sport and the Olympics verbally set out his plans in which he stated that ‘‘delivering a mass participation legacy from London 2012 is one of my three top priorities’’(DCMS 2010). There are however concerns that the planned spending cuts will hit the public sector sport’s budget particularly as in Local Authorities, the delivery of sport is a non-statutory service. It is anticipated that Hugh Robertson will launch the new London 2012 sport strategy in late October 2010. |
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