Скачать 1.49 Mb.
|
Notes: 1cereals or grain –зерновые культуры 2legumes-бобовые 3forage crops-фуражные культуры 4root crops- корнеплоды 5turnips, rutabagas, mangels- турнепс, брюква, кормовая свекла Вариант №4 Disease cycle Scab begins when tubers start forming. Initially the spots may be so small that they are not noticed. As the tuber continues to grow, the areas of these reddish brown spots also enlarge. An older tuber has too thick a protective layer on its surface to be invaded readily. In any thimbleful1 of soil there may occur thousands, or even millions, of individuals belonging to the genus Streptomyces. These are actinomycetes2 which have characteristics placing them between bacteria and fungi. Not all of the Streptomyces organisms recovered from the soil can cause scab on potatoes, but many of them can. Collectively these usually are grouped under the name Streptomyces scabies. Streptomyces scabies can live on decomposing material in the soil and does not require a potato or root crop to remain alive. However, it does become more aggressive on any given crop, such as potatoes, if the same crop is grown year after year without rotation. The organism infects the tuber by means of a tiny thread that pushes directly through the tender skin of the forming potato. It slowly continues to grow until the crop is harvested. The infected areas on the potato respond at once by laying down a corky layer. As each layer is invaded by the scab organism, new cork formation takes place until a mature scab spot is produced. Scab does not develop further after the potatoes are dug, but the organism remains alive all winter in storage. Notes: Thimbleful-небольшое количество, щепотка Actinomycetes- акциномицеты Tomatoes The tomato is one of the most widely planted of all home garden vegetable crops. The seed should be sown in the hot-bed during February and the plants later transplanted to the field when all danger of frost has passed. A few plants of at least two varieties should be grown, one of the early sorts, such as Barliana, and the other of the later type. Where only a few plants are to be set out and space is scarce, it is best to stake and prune1 them to a single stem. If not staked, the plants should be mulched with straw so as to keep the fruit off the soil and conserve moisture. Young tomato plants should be kept free of weeds and grass by hosing and shallow cultivation. Deep cultivation is discouraged at all times because of the resulting root pruning and breaking of the plants. Where available without much expense, irrigation will serve to increase the yields and occasionally prolong the picking season until frost. Notes: 1stake and prune-подпирать колышком и удалять боковые веточки Agriculture Agriculture is an important branch of economy of any state. It deals with plant growing and animal breeding. Modern agriculture in all leading countries of the world is highly equipped with machinery. Such processes as plowing, sowing and harvesting are carried out by machines. Electricity is widely used in agriculture, especially in animal husbandry. We cannot imagine modern agriculture without applying commercial fertilizers, without using herbicides against pests, without means of control diseases of plants and animals. Thus, mechanization, electrification and chemization are the most important factors of rapid development of highly productive agriculture. Land areas used in agriculture are called agricultural lands. Not all agricultural lands are absolutely fit ones. People turn unsuitable lands into suitable by rooting up trees and bushes, by draining swamps and irrigating deserts. Land reclamation or land improvement is called melioration. Drainage and irrigation are the main components of melioration. The need for seed testing A knowledge of the quality of the seed to be planted is of the highest importance to the farmer. It is the purpose of the seed test to disclose any undesirable conditions of crop seeds that might result in failure of crops, an excessive cost of the actually good seed, or the introduction and spread of troublesome and noxious weeds. The usual laboratory test of a seed sample consists of a purity test and a germination test. In the purity test the seed is examined to determine the actual proportion of the crop seed in the sample: the quantity and kinds of other crop seeds that may be present; the quantity and kinds of weed seed; and the quantity and character of the inert matter present. The germination test shows the proportion of the pure crop seeds that may be expected to produce plants. Вариант №5 Potato scab1 Symptoms: A common tuber disease2 that occurs wherever potatoes are grown, potato scab appears as superficial, dark brown, pithy patches that may be raised and "warty." These lesions may affect just a small portion of the tuber surface, or may completely cover it. Sometimes the ridged portions are in broken concentric rings. Potato scab is caused by the bacteria-like organism Streptomyces scabies that overwinters in fallen leaves and in the soil. The organism can survive indefinitely in slightly alkaline soil but is relatively scarce in highly acid soils. It is transmitted to plants by infected seed tubers, wind and water. The organism is also spread in fresh manure, since it can survive passage through the digestive tract of animals. S. scabies enters through pores (lenticels) in stems, through wounds, and directly through the skin of young tubers. In addition to potato, other crops infected include beets, radish, turnip, carrot, rutabaga, and parsnips. This should be kept in mind when considering a crop rotation schedule. Note: S. scabies can survive in the soil for many years in the absence of potato. Notes: 1potato scab-парша на картофеле 2tuber disease-заболевание клубней Lettuce1 Lettuce is the most popular of the salad crops. It is grown on many kinds of soils from clay loams to sandy loams. Lettuce reaches its highest development on sandy loams and silt loams well supplied with organic matter and on a good well-drained muck or peat soil. Where earliness is important sandy loam is preferred because it warms up earlier than other soils. Lettuce does not grow well on mineral soils that are strongly acid, but it is not desirable to completely neutralize the acidity by liming. The soil for lettuce should be well drained but retentive of moisture. Thorough preparation to obtain a good seedbed is important. The lettuce plant has a small root system, therefore the surface soil should be well supplied with nutrients. The soil should have a good supply of organic matter also. When lettuce is grown on mineral soils, manure or soil-improving crops should be used to maintain the soil in good physical conditions. Shallow cultivation2 to control weeds is very important for lettuce as the plants cannot compete successfully with weeds. The root system is small and many of the roots are near the surface, therefore cultivation should be shallow. Notes: 1 lettuce-cалат- латук 2 shallow cultivation-неглубокое возделывание Wheat1 Wheat is one of the leading crops of the eastern United States. This region is made up of eastern Texas, eastern Oklahoma, eastern Kansas, southeastern Nebraska, Iowa, southern Wisconsin, and all States to the east, and produces about one-fifth of the country’s wheat. More than 75 distinct varieties of wheat are grown on a commercial scale in this region. Soft red winter varieties predominate, but white winter wheat is grown extensively in New York and Michigan, and hard red winter varieties are grown in Iowa, northern Illinois, northwestern Indiana, and southern Wisconsin, primarily because of their greater winter hardiness. This wheat is grown largely as a supplement to other crops. It fits well into rotations and serves as an important cover crop to prevent soil erosion and leaching in the late fall, winter, and early spring, when the land would otherwise be bare. It is often grown because it can immediately be converted into cash. Notes: wheat-пшеница Weeds1 A weed may be defined as ’’a plant out of place’’ or ’’a plant growing where it is not desired’’. It follows that a plant may be a weed in some places and not in others. For example, Bermuda grass, which is considered one of the most noxious weeds in places, where it is not desired in certain parts of the South is the most valuable pasture grass. Some plants are considered weeds wherever they grow, as they do not seem to serve a useful purpose anywhere. Some of our most useful plants, however, have been considered worthless weeds in the past. As late as 1893, laws were passed in Wisconsin (US) to prevent the spread of sweat clover, which was classed as a weed pest. A weed has other characteristics that classify it than the place where it is growing. In the first place, a weed has no economical use. This does not imply that an economic use may not some day be discovered, but until it is the plant should continue to be called a weed. The cost of weeds to the farmers is enormous as weeds (1) reduce crop yields, (2) increase the expense (cost) of cultivation and harvest, (3) reduce the market value of crops, (4) harbor fungi and insect pests that attack adjacent crops, (5) poison or injure man, livestock, or livestock products. Notes: 1weeds-сорняки Строительный факультет ВАРИАНТ №1 Text 1 The science of building is Architecture. Any engineer cannot take a form of the building without consideration of structural principles, materials, social and economic requirements. So a building cannot be considered as a work of architecture. From the very beginning architecture of many skills, systems and theories have been used for the construction of the buildings that men have housed in all their essential activities. The coexistence of change and survival is evident in all phases of the human story. This change and repetition is clearly illustrated in any architectural style. The historical background of architecture is the value of our cultural heritage. The heritage1 of the past cannot be ignored. Such recognition of continuity does not imply repetition or imitation. It must be expressed in contemporary terminology. Writing on architecture is almost as old as writing itself. There are a lot of books on the theory of architecture, on the art of a building and on the aesthetic appearance of buildings. The oldest book is a work of Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, written in the first century B.C. Nearly two thousand years ago the Roman architect Vitruvius set the principles upon which buildings should be designed and aims to guide the architect. He was the first who listed three basic factors in architecture — "convenience, strength and beauty". The sequence of these three basic aims — "convenience, strength and beauty" — has its own significance. These three factors are always present and are always interrelated in the best structures. It is impossible for a true architect to think of one of them without considering the other two as well. Thus architectural design entails a consideration of the constant interaction of these factors. At last we can say that every element in a building has a triple implication. At the same time its contemporary expression must be creative and consequently new. Architecture is an art. The triple nature of architectural design is one of the reasons why architecture is a difficult art. The architect does not first plan a building from the point of view of convenience, then designs around his plan a strong construction to shelter it, and finally adjusts and decorates the whole to make it pretty. It takes him a special type of imagination as well as long years of training and experience to produce a designer capable of making the requisite in the light of these three factors — "use, construction, aesthetic effect" — simultaneously. First of all, the designer must have sufficient knowledge of engineering, building materials to enable him to create economically. I see any building is built because of some definite human need. The use problem — "convenience" — is therefore primary. In addition, the designer must possess the creative imagination which will enable him to integrate the plan and the construction into one harmonious whole. The architect's feeling of satisfaction in achieving such as integration is one of his greatest rewards. Text 2 We can not ignore the heritage of the past. There are different styles and kinds of architecture in the past around the world. It is not a secret, that various cultures have left their imprint on history through their great monuments and buildings, great castles and cathedrals. The oldest monuments which are met within architecture are great structures such as Egyptian pyramids, the Parthenon in Athens, the Roman Pantheon, and Hagia Sophia in the "New Rome", Constantinople, great castles and cathedrals of the Middle Ages, the palaces of the Renaissance and the civil engineering infrastructure of the industrial revolution. Great architects and engineers followed an integrated process of conception, design and construction. This integrated construction process persisted through the end of the nineteenth century, when the Roebling family (John, Washington, and Emily) designed and built the Brooklyn Bridge. It is necessary to select materials, a type, a size and a configuration to carry loads in a safe and serviceable fashion. The architects and engineers mobilize the resources needed to realize the final structure. This classical approach is used to build. In general, structural design implies engineering of stationary objects such as buildings and bridges, objects that may be mobile but have a rigid shape such as ship hulls and aircraft frames. But it is an area of mechanical design, to which devices are generally assigned. These are devices with parts planned to move with relation to each other. Text 3 First of all, the value of true architecture lies in the direct effect of the structure itself. It depends on many reasons. One of them is a drawing. Drawings are works of architecture. An architect uses drawings to achieve his objective. In fact, drawings can represent buildings only on paper. It is called "paper architecture". We mean the result of architect's thinking of drawings. But, there is a danger of "paper architecture". The architect mustn't forget that many elements which look well on a drawing may be either completely ineffective or definitely harmful in the actual building. For example, it is electric architecture. Electric buildings are full of decorative elements which look well on the drawing. Perhaps even seem necessary on the drawing. But in the actual buildings they are completely meaningless. An architect is able to see variations of a plan, of color and a shade. Each of these variations is due to the effects of light on the building materials employed. The architect must always study each detail from the viewpoints of both use and appearance as well as from that of construction. He must not see it as an isolated detail but as an individual note in a great composition. A work of an architect exists only when it stands a complete, concrete object for all to see or to use. The architect must project an integration of the whole in order to create a work of architecture. He must remember about the architect's alphabet. Knowledge of this alphabet is as essential to him as knowledge of words to the writer or of notes to the musician. The letters of the architect's alphabet are such elements as walls and openings, supports and ceilings, enclosed areas or rooms. We enter the building and our attention meets the same complexity of elements. They are doors to allow ingress and egress; windows to admit light and air; walls for shelter or support; roofs to keep out the rain, snow, cold, and sometimes sun. A partition separates space from space. There may be stairs, escalators, or elevators to allow progress from level to level and halls or corridors to permit easy circulators from part to part Finally there may be all sorts of interior spaces for definite human activities — rooms both public and private — to take care of the varying functions of human living. No building can exist without some of them. Any true architectural design is no mere fantasy, no unreal dream. It contemplates an actual building. There must be adequate structure for a building to exist. Then we observe the physical structure of a building outside. Next, "strength" becomes the second necessity for the construction. A true construction must stand up solidly. Finally, mankind has always realized that buildings to be complete must have not only "convenience" and "strength", but also "beauty". Some people think that architecture is not a fine art at all. For such people the world of fine arts is something entirely set apart from ordinary living and that its single purpose should be satisfying of physical necessities. At the same time architecture is a matter of pictures or sculpture, poems or music. The architect has the task of being an artist as well as an inventive engineer. The expression of the purpose of buildings would seem to call for additional thought on this point. The emotions are evoked by beauty. It may be theaters, churches, dwellings and buildings, which always differ from one another. Yet a separate consideration of an individual building is a very real artificial sense. |
Деловой иностранный язык. Методические указания по выполнению контрольных работ для студентов 2 курса заочной формы обучения, обучающихся... | |||
«27» июня 2007 г., и в соответствии с рабочими учебными планами специальности 030501 – Юриспруденция, утвержденными Ректором спбгиэу... | Учебная практика проводится на 2-м курсе для студентов очной формы обучения и студентов бакалавров, на 1-м курсе для студентов очно-заочной... | ||
Методические указания предназначены для студентов заочной формы обучения по специальности Техническое обслуживание и ремонт автомобильного... | Методические указания предназначены для студентов, бакалавров и магистрантов очной и заочной формы обучения всех направлений и профилей... | ||
Методические указания предназначены для студентов, бакалавров и магистрантов очной и заочной формы обучения всех направлений и профилей... | Уголовно-процессуальные акты [Текст]: методические указания по выполнению контрольных работ для студентов заочной формы обучения... | ||
ПМ. 01 Ведение расчетных операций, мдк. 01. 01 Организация безналичных расчетов, уп. Пм. 01 [Текст]: методические указания по выполнению... | Методические указания по практике для студентов специальности «автомобильные дороги», дневной и заочной формы обучения / Составители:... |
Поиск Главная страница   Заполнение бланков   Бланки   Договоры   Документы    |