Теория и практика эффективного преподавания иностранных языков


НазваниеТеория и практика эффективного преподавания иностранных языков
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ENGLISH-GERMAN AND ENGLISH-RUSSIAN CODE SWITCHING
O. Vorobjova, I. Sipakova
Teachers’ Training Institute of Saratov State University
This paper is only an introduction into a very complicated problem of switching to English in a written and oral discourse of Russians and Germans living outside English-speaking countries.

Our goal is twofold: firstly, to show that bilingualism may occur not only in a typical bilingual community, as it is generally stated by the code switching theorists [1; 2; 3] and, secondly, to describe several common instances of the code switching processes of the two languages under study.

The intensive immigration in the 20th century promoted the investigation of language contacts in terms of mixing, crossing, double voicing, hybridization. [2; 4] All these concepts described the results of the interrelation of two or more national languages.

Starting with the 60s of the last century, the researchers have viewed the language relations statically, basing on their comparatively lengthy coexistence. They focused mainly on the results of such contacts in the form of borrowings and loan words. The reasons for borrowing have been explored, and the borrowed morphemes, lexical units and collocations have been investigated as to their usage and adaptation to the morphological and syntactical standards of the recipient languages. They have been classified according to the extent they were adopted by the recipient language. The semantic and contextual differences of the loan and native language lexemes have been put to analysis. [1; 5; 6].

The present day global village situation has raised the question of what is happening to the national languages at large. Globalization processes involve transmission of information and technologies as well as cultural concepts and values. They dramatically influence the development of the national languages. Obviously enough English is the leader in this area, possessing “ideological, cultural and elitist” power, as the researchers elegantly phrase it. The international advance of English has brought along such telescopic terms as Swengish in Sweden, Danglish in Denmark, Denglish in Germany, Franglais in France. [4; 7]. We are not aware of a similar term for Russian, but Anglicized Russian is used quite often. Following the pattern we may as well create “Rusenglish”.

These newly coined terms show that the influx of English has outreached the limits of the previously existing loan processes from a donor language to the recipients and has acquired new qualitative and quantitative characteristics. Western linguists started applying the code switching approach to these new phenomena. But there are also numerous opponents who take a traditional view on code switching.

Traditionally, this theory is applied when analyzing bilingual communities or families. Most works on Russian-English code switching are centered on the analysis of, say, Russian-English bilingual from Boston, or Atlanta, or some other area populated by Russian immigrants. There are case studies of German bilinguals in London, or in Philadelphia [3].

Professor Mizurin of Ohio University, a specialist in Russian-English code-switching insists on the validity of the loan theory for investigating English-Russian interrelation outside an English-speaking country [8].

Nevertheless, there are objective reasons to believe that the loan theory does not allow for the comprehensive analysis of the changes in the present day German or Russian, or any other language closely interrelating with English, and bilingualism should be treated differently from the traditional view.

According to one of the prominent investigators of English-German code switching, Jannis Androutsopoulos, there are multiple paths of linguistic transmission in globalized media that create new literacy spaces [9]. We understand it in the sense that one should abandon the minimalist approach to bilingualism which is no longer granted only by virtue of living in a bilingual community or family.

Nowadays bilingualism may be reached through a number of ways. One of them, which seems common for all the European countries, and, of course, Russia and Germany, is institutional learning of English as a foreign language. In many regions of Russia English as an academic subject is taught in the kindergarten through school and university-level institutions. There is a good chance for the best students to continue their education and professional activities in an English-speaking country. If a person studies a foreign language for some 10–15 years and probably works for an international company, with the passing of time the foreign language becomes his or her second language. Our data conform that the percentage of such people is increasing every year.

In Germany, it being a part of the United Europe, knowledge of at least two foreign languages is a must for people pursuing careers practically in every sphere of economics and culture. The European Council Project “Language Learning for European Citizenship” has influenced greatly the national systems of early and further language learning. It is in Germany that “Begegnungsconzept”, translated as the “Foreign Language Immersion” concept has been developed and is being successfully implemented, alongside with the “Language Awareness Approach” originating from Great Britain. The academic mobility and travelling opportunities of German students are extremely beneficial for switching languages. The role of International exams aimed at raising the level of language proficiency should not be underestimated, either. [10].

There are other ways of becoming bilinguals. English nowadays enters the speech of Germans and Russians through completely different mechanisms than before. Actually, the most rapid spread of English occurs via media or the Internet.

Mass-mediated discourse may reach both nation wide audiences and comparatively limited subgroups. What is a more popular reading than a TV program in Russia? Here are the examples of TV program titles, taken at random, it is not a special selection of many weeks work:

Design-ремонт; Музыкальный ФаSong; Стань VJ MTV; SMS-чарт; Рублёвка. Live; News блок Daily; интер@ктив; Брэнд House.

One may feel an outsider reading some titles, being unable to anticipate what is going to be shown. By the way, it is one of the social functions of switching – to leave aliens out of communication.

English switches within written discourse of smaller groups like youth music fans, alternative medicine, yoga, ecology, UFO-watching, tatoo, and so on are even more frequent and elaborate.

Буйволинг& крокодилинг в Южной Африке [11].

Элитный няннинг, колясинг и памперсинг [12]

Here follows the sentence out of a record review from a German journal [13]:

Er hat einen ruffen Beat, einen schönen Sample, und die Rapper kicken ihre Styles darüber – eben typish Eastcoast.

He's got a rough beat, a nice sample, and the rappers kick their styles on it – it's a typical east coast thing.

Another example. In the 550-word article from a German women's journal we came across 70 switches to English which equals to 13 % [14]. They refer mainly to the office routine:

laptop, human resourses, headhunter, meeting, corporate identity.

Some switches have adopted the German morphological markers:

Office-Managerin, checke, networken. [15;16;17]

But the rule of noun capitalization is often not followed.

The Internet is no doubt, one of the most powerful tools for promoting English into the languages of their users via message boards, newsgroups, guest-book entries. The usage of English in the Internet is a separate subject for investigation, and it is mentioned here to highlight its role as a medium and source of code switches. Most of them serve as framings and can be described as routine. They are openers (greetings) and closers (farewells), like yo, hi, bye-bye, cu (see you). Such expressive speech acts as thanks, sorry, fuck off, wow are also in wide use. True, that in such cases communicators can use idiomatic English or at least appear doing so without a bilingual competence.

Commercial slogans go international. They have never been granted as much as the status of borrowings, to say nothing of switches. They are traditionally referred to as quotations or insertions. But again, their number is dramatically increasing and whatever we call them is a question of terminology. What seems indisputable is that they add to creation of the English language environment, promote the usage of idiomatic English and help form bilinguals.

Here are the examples of the slogans registered in both languages:

Panasonic: ideas for life; Underground will survive; Keep on rocking; Get it; Visit our site; Check it out.

Code switching both in written and oral discourse is caused by a number of objective and subjective factors which seem to be universal and may be applied both to Germans and Russians. According to the psycho-linguistic data, a person may switch unconsciously using the language that he or she recalls first. The language may lack a name for a thing, or a notion, or it is too wordy. Change of social roles is also a reason for switching. Extremely important are cultural connotations, which may loose a lot in translation. [1] A few Russians can boast of knowing an adequate equivalent of “challenge”, or “smart” or…the list is endless. From the social perspective switching demonstrates good education, or in-group communicative style, keeping away “aliens”.

By way of conclusion it may be stated that globalization has called to life a wider understanding of bilingualism which is one of the stages of transition from national cultures to policulture.
REFERENCES


  1. Проценко Е.А. Проблема переключения кодов в зарубежной лингвистике. //Вестн. ВГУ. Сер. Лингвистика и межкультурная коммуникация. 2004. №1.

  2. Erfurt J. „Multisprech“: Migration und Hybridisierung und ihre Folgen für die Sprachwissenschaft // OBST Osnabrücker Beiträge zur Sprachtheorie. Duisburg, Februar 2003.

  3. Myers-Scotton, Carol. Duelling Languages: Grammatical Structure in Code-switching N. Y.: Oxford University Press, 1993.

  4. Hann U. Aspekte interkultureller Kommunikation. München: Judicum Verlag, 1985.

  5. Bußmann H. Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft. Alfred Kröner Verlag Stuttgart, 1990.

  6. Edelenbos P., Kubanek A. Fremdsprachenlernen mit Spaß. Verlag Herder Freiburg in Breisgau, 2001.

  7. Hinnenkamp V. Interkulturelle Kommunikation. Heidelberg: Julius Groos Verlag, Heidelberg, 1994.

  8. Misurin Ludmila. Russian in Diaspora // misurin.1@osu.edu.

  9. Androutsopoulos J. Jetzt speak something about italiano. Sprachliche Kreuzungen im Alltagsleben // OBST Osnabrücker Beiträge zur Sprachtheorie. Duisburg, Februar, 2003.

  10. http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/index_de.html

  11. Комсомольская правда. 2005. № 21 (196).

  12. Мастер-ружьё. М.: 2006. № 3.

  13. Bildung und Wissenschaft. 1998. №4.

  14. Brigitte. 2006. №5.

  15. Metzler Lexikon Sprache Verlag J.B. Metzler Stuttgart Weimar, 1993.

  16. Schönfeld E. Alles easy. Ein Wörterbuch des Neudeutschen. Verlag C.H. Beck, München, 1995.

  17. Snell-Hornby M., Hönig H. G., Kußmaul P. Handbuch Translation-Stauffenburg Verlag Brigitte Narr GmbH. Tübingen, 2003.


THE REFLECTION OF CROSS-CULTURAL INTERACTIONS
IN THE LINGUISTIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE BRITISH
AND AMERICAN EDITIONS OF HARRY POTTER BOOKS

I.I. Dubrovina
Saratov State University

The Department of English Philology
“Harry Potter” is a popular series of fantasy novels by the British writer J.K. Rowling. The first Potter book was published in the UK by Bloomsbury, a small independent publisher, in 1997. Even before the book was released, the publishing rights were purchased by Scholastic Press, an American publishing house. Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone was released in the U.S.A. with the title Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone, because the publishers were concerned that the original title would not instantly give the book an impression of magic and fantasy to the American public [1].

In all the six books, released so far, there are lots of textual differences between the Bloomsbury and the Scholastic editions. Most of the changes were made by American editors to clarify the text for U.S. readers.

Since lexical differences between British and American varieties of English are numerous enough, many mass-market books, especially those meant for younger readers, are revised before publication in the “other” market. What we deal with here is the process of localisation, the term used mostly in advertising and marketing in connection with translating promotional materials for publication abroad. Localisation means adjusting the style and presentation of the translated text to the intended market. The most common examples of localisation concern brand names. A brand name that is perfectly acceptable in one country may sound awkward or even ridiculous in another (like the Swedish Plopp chocolate, for example). It seems that the Scholastic editors found “the Philosopher’s Stone” not an adequate brand name in American book market.

In fact, the process of the localisation of literary publications works in both directions: there is conversion of American publications into British editions as well. For one example, we have two versions (American original and British adaptation) of F. Scott Fitzgerald’s “Great Gatsby”. However, because of the size and attractiveness of the U.S. consumer market, there is a substantial amount of conversion of British publications into American versions.

Although most of the changes made by the American editors of Harry Potter books DO have logic to them and actually reflect the linguistic differences between the two major varieties of English, there are differences between the two editions that are difficult to explain. For example, in all the books the original “Minister for Magic” has become “Minister of Magic”. There is no particular reason why this had to be changed for the American version since in the U.S.A. they do not have government ministers at all (theirs are called “Secretaries”). American readers would have been perfectly happy with “Minister for Magic”. Another example of no logical reason for a change concerns the spelling of Professor Trelawney’s first name, which is spelled Sybil in the British version and Sibyl in the U.S. version.

The other differences can be put into several groups:

1. Spelling changes.

Spelling changes are most obvious and most systematic of all:

UK edition: moustache, neighbours, behaviour, living-room, get-ups, etc.

US edition: mustache, neighbors, behavior, living room, getups, etc.

2. Punctuation changes.

Punctuation changes involve the different use of comas, inverted comas, full-stops and dashes:

UK edition: Mr (Mrs), single quotes for dialogue, etc.

US edition: Mr. (Mrs.), double quotes for dialogue, etc.
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