Методические указания для студентов 1 и II курсов дневного и заочного отделений


НазваниеМетодические указания для студентов 1 и II курсов дневного и заочного отделений
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6. Who (write) the play Hamlet?

7. Einstein (be) the physicist who (develop) the theory of relativity.

8. The Chinese (invent) printing.

9. I can reach my work easily now, as I (buy) a new car.

10. I (lose) my keys and cannot remember where I (see) them last.

11. I (not see) you for ages.

12. Jane (speak) Italian well because she (speak) Italian all her life.

Vocabulary List 2

1. approach 1. Приближение 2. Подход

2. inspire 1. Вдохновение 2. Вдохновлять

3. to take up 1. Подхватывать 2. Занимать место

3. Принимать, брать на себя

4. a brand 1. Фабричная марка, клеймо 2. Качество

5. a megaagency крупная фирма или агентство

6. to attract привлекать

attractive привлекательный

7. a corollary вывод, заключение,

следствие, результат

8. cost 1. Расходы, издержки, затраты

2. Цена, стоимость, себестоимость

9. cheap дешевый

10. instead of вместо

11. separate отдельный

12. to create творить, созидать, создавать

creative творческий

creation создание

13. sense смысл

common sense здравый смысл

14. to impose 1. облагать (налогом), налагать

2. навязывать

15. like подобный

16. such as такой как

17. the same тот же самый

18. to agree соглашаться, договариваться

an agreement соглашение, договоренность

19. a cliché клише, штамп

20. similar похожий, подобный, одинаковый

21. to tailor 1. шить, здесь: создавать,производить

22. to require требовать

a requirement потребность

23. a network сеть

24. an advent пришествие

25. to suppose предполагать

supposedly по общему мнению, предположительно

26. editorial издательский

to edit издавать, выпускать

an editor издатель

an edition издание, выпуск

27. to book заказывать

28. to set up основывать, учреждать, начинать

29. supervisory контролирующий, наблюдающий,

руководящий

a supervisor надзиратель, контролер

30. unlike в отличие

31. to perform выполнять

performance выполнение

32. a performer исполнитель

33. statutory установленный законом

34. a limited company компания с ограниченной

ответственностью

35. a board департамент, министерство, совет

36. a levy взимание, обложение, сбор

37. tremendous = great великий, большой

38. to ensure обеспечивать, гарантировать

39. an independence независимость

40. a lobby “закулисное”проведение законопроекта

41. majority большинство

major больший, более важный, главный

42. entire полный, совершенный, целый

entirely полностью, всецело

43. to connect связь, связывать

a connection связь

unconnected несвязанный

44. an interest процент, интерес, выгода, доля участия

в прибыли

45. to monitor надзирать, контролировать

46. to draw up составлять (документ)

47. to revise 1. Проверять, исправлять

2. Изменять, пересматривать

48. intra (лат.) внутри

49. a complaint жалоба

50. to enforce оказывать давление, принуждать,

настаивать

enforcement давление, принуждение

51. up to вплоть до

up to now до настоящего момента
52. to follow следовать

to follow the example следовать примеру

53. to consider считать

to be considered считаться, рассматриваться

54. to mislead вводить в заблуждение

55. ultimate окончательный

56. legal юридический, правовой, законный

57. back up поддержка

58. to remain оставаться

59. to draw attention привлекать внимание

60. a transgression нарушение

61. a deterrent средство устранения

62. aware осознающий, осведомленный

awareness осведомленность

63. to donate дарить, жертвовать

64. a poster плакат, афиша, реклама


Text 2. Global Advertising

An approach to international advertising and marketing, inspired by Theodore Levitt and taken up enthusiastically by Saatchis. The idea is “world brands” marketed by multinationals, serviced by megaagencies, using the same advertising material and commercials everywhere. This has the attractive corollary that production costs would be very much cheaper: only one worldwide campaign instead of separate creative work and TV commercials for each country.

There are in the sense that they sell all over the world, many “world brands” already, such as Coca Cola, Levi’s Jeans, Marlboro.

There are also many ‘global’ marketing companies, such as Unilever, Kodak, De Beers, Philips, Sony. But even companies like these do not impose the same advertising on every country. They would agree with the ex-Chairman of ICI: “There is a cliché that the world is a single marketplace but the reality is that this is not true. Similar products are required but they have to be tailored and delivered to meet the national need… each of those markets requires a different response. The worldwide communication networks and the promised advent of DBS are also supposedly forces for globalization. DBS is still struggling on the ground and the media empires (like Murdoch’s) do not run the same editorial or programs worldwide. This suggests that even if space/time can be booked globally, it has to be filled locally.

ASA. Advertising Standards Authority. Set up at the 1962 AA Conference to take up the vital supervisory role in the industry’s new system of self-regulation for non-broadcast advertising. Unlike the IBA, which performs a similar role for broadcast advertising, the ASA is not a statutory body. It is a limited company, financed through the Advertising Standards Board of Finance Levy of Advertising.

Tremendous efforts are made to ensure the independence of the ASA and that it could never become, or be mistaken for, a pro-advertising lobby. The Chairman and the majority of its 12 council members must, for example, be entirely unconnected with any advertising interest.

The ASA’s role is to monitor the work of the CAP Committee in drawing up and revising the British Code of Advertising Practice and British Code of Sales Promotion Practice, and to deal with intra-industry complaints. One independent ASA council member sits on each of the CAP Committee’s special sub-committees.

ASA enforces BCAP. Up to now the UK has not found it necessary to follow the example of such countries as Canada or Sweden and set up, and pay for a statutory framework for print advertising, and our system is considered to have worked well. When the EC Misleading Advertising Directive came into force in 1988 there was an ultimate legal back up. But the terms of BCAP and its day-to-day administration remained the same. Enforcement to date has depended not only on ASA’s attention being drawn to transgressions of the Code, but also an active monitoring programme. Since 1975 at the investigation of the OFT who concluded that its self-regulation were to be as effective a deterrent as legislation the Code needed to be more widely known and public awareness increased, the ASA has been energetically publicizing BCAP. Newspapers, magazines and poster companies for the advertising campaign donate free space.

EXERCISES
Exercise 1. Поставьте слова и словосочетания в соответствующие предложения и переведите на русский язык:
to ensure, to set up, connection, to take into account, a way, to draw up,

to follow on, cash, a network, requirements, to draw attention
1. The new approach to this problem discovered the new . . . of its solution.

2. Has your lawyer . . . the contract yet?

3. The advertising campaign has . . . our . . . to the publications

considered to have been not too attractive before.

4. These documents . . . to you the authority you need.

5. You may pay . . . or by cheque; it comes to the same thing.

6. Joint enterprises are . . . to manufacture products for sale in these countries

and in third countries.

7. Big companies in Great Britain have their own . . . of distributive

organizations to sell their goods at home and abroad.

8. We’ve had long . . . with the firm since our first deal in 1980.

9. If you don’t keep your account straight, serious debt could . . . .

10. The performance of the machine meets the . . . of our customers.

11. The top management of the company must . . . all the possible

consequences connected with taking a risk in running their business.
Exercise 2. Образуйте новые слова
А. Существительные: to approach, to create, to agree, to edit, to perform,

to connect, to enforce, to be aware
В. Наречия от прилагательных: separate, similar, entire, ultimate, legal, consequent, cheap
Exercise 3. Переведите с русского на английский язык следующие слова и словосочетания:

предположительно, большинство, поддержка, основывать, следовать примеру, составлять контракт, привлекать внимание, вместо, облагать налогом, такой же, похожий, подобный, дешевый, в отличие, сеть, компания с ограниченной ответственностью, всецело, считаться, до наших дней
Exercise 4.
A. Поставьте слова both, either, neither в соответствующие предложения:
1. The supermarkets just near your house are very good. I like them . . . .

2. . . . of the hotels we stayed at were too expensive.

3. We can visit . . . of those museums today. I don’t mind.

4. Can . . . of you speak Spanish?

5. . . . of us were very tired.

6. . . . team played well.

7. I liked . . . flats. I couldn’t decide which one to choose for living.


B. Поставьте обороты both…and, either…or, neither…nor

в соответствующие предложения:
1. The film was … boring … long.

2. That man’s name is … Richard … Robert. He is Ret.

3. We can leave … today … tomorrow. It doesn’t matter for me.

4. He has got … time … wish to join us.

5. … he apologizes … I’ll never speak to him again.

6. … you … me must take part in this talks. They are very important for the

business.

7. He said he would contact me but he … wrote … phoned.

8. I’m not sure where he is from. He’s … Spanish … Italian.

9. The cottage was … luxurious … comfortable.

UNIT 2. MONEY
Vocabulary List 1

1. any 1. Какой-то 2. Любой

at any rate = in any case в любом случае

2. to perform выполнять

performance 1. Исполнение, выполнение,

действие

2. Театральное представление

3. Характеристика

a performer исполнитель

3. to employ 1. Нанимать на работу

2. Употреблять, применять

an employer наниматель, работодатель

an employee служащий; работающий на дому

unemployment безработица

4. to negotiate вести переговоры, договариваться

to hold negotiations

negotiation переговоры

5. a rate 1. Тариф, расценка, ставка 2. Случай

at any rate = in any case в любом случае

6. a profit = interest доход, прибыль

7. a surplus излишек, остаток

8. to accumulate аккумулировать, накапливать

accumulation накопление

an accumulator аккумулятор

9. as a result в результате чего

10. expense затраты, расходы

11. wages = salary заработная плата, жалованье

12. to share разделить, делить(ся)

a share 1. Доля, часть 2. Акция, пай

shares акции

a shareholder акционер

13. in order для того, чтобы

14. an accommodation 1. Приспособление 2. Удобство

3. Ссуда

15. machinery оборудование, машины

16. success успех

successful = of great success успешный

17. to bear the risk рисковать

18. to justify оправдывать

justified оправданный

19. to invest помещать капитал, вкладывать деньги

investment капиталовложение

20. to earn зарабатывать, заслуживать

earnings заработок

21. in return for something за что-либо

22. to save 1.Спасать 2.Беречь

3.Сберегать, экономить

savings сбережения

23. certain 1. Обязательный 2. Определенный

24. a term 1. Термин 2. Срок 3. Условие

25. to define определять

26. assets активы, фонды, средства

27. to possess владеть

possession владение

28. to exchange обменивать, разменивать

an exchange обмен, размен

29. to measure измерять

measurable измеримый

measurement измерение

30. a value стоимость, ценность

valuable ценный

surplus value прибавочная стоимость

31. to undertake предпринимать

32. to fix устанавливать, закреплять

33. to care for/of заботиться, ухаживать

34. therefore следовательно, таким образом

35. sense смысл

36. to be aware of знать, сознавать, отдавать себе отчет

37. a reward вознаграждение

38. to concern касаться, иметь отношение

to be concerned with беспокоиться, интересоваться

39. essential значительный, главный

essentially главным образом, преимущественно

40. to pay платить

a payment платеж, оплата
41. to judge судить, оценивать

a judgement мнение, взгляд

42. distinctions различия

43. available доступный, имеющийся в наличии,

свободный


Text 1. Money and Labour


Labour is any work performed for an employer at a negotiated rate while profit is the surplus, which accumulates as a result of productive work. The employer obtains this surplus after he pays the necessary expense of his business and the wages of his employees. He may be required to share the surplus with others who have provided the capital with which he started his business. Most businesses need capital in order to start productive work, and the capital pays for the accommodation, machinery and other items, which the business needs. There is always an element of risk in providing capital and starting a business. The business may not be successful. The employees of the business do not bear this risk, but the employers do bear it. If the business is successful, the risk has been justified and the invested capital earns part of the profits as a return on the investment.

The capital that people provide to help new businesses is an accumulation of previous surpluses on previous business activities. In this way the past is used to finance the future. Such capital is accumulated by a deliberate policy of saving surpluses. This policy may be personal and individual, or it may be public and collective. In any case, a certain part of the profits is returned back into the system in order to create capital.

In general terms, capital can be defined as: 1) a factor of production (for example, machinery or cash); 2) the assets possessed by a person, a company or a nation. Land, houses and shares in a business are capital. In terms of the state, all railways, docks, roads, airports are part of the nation’s capital. Money is not only a means of exchange but is also a means of measuring the value of man’s labour. In economic theory, “labour” is any work undertaken in return for a fixed payment. The work undertaken by a mother in caring for her children may be hard work, but it receives no fixed payment. It is not therefore labour in the strict economic sense.

As a scientist, the economist is interested in measuring the service, which people render to each other. Although he is aware of the services, which people provide for no financial reward, he is not concerned with these services. He is interested essentially in services, which are measurable in terms of money payments of a fixed and of regular nature. In economics, money is the standard by which the value of things is judged. This standard is not a religious or subjective standard, but an objective and scientific one.

Human labour produces both goods and services. The activities of a farm worker and a nurse are very different, but both are measurable in terms of payment received. Labour in the sense is not concerned with distinctions of social class, but simply with the payment of wages in return for work. When we talk about “the national labour force”, however, we are thinking of all those people who are available for work within the nation, i.e. the working population.


EXERCISES
Exercise 1. Поставьте слова и словосочетания в соответствующие предложения и переведите:
to concern, to care for, of great success, to hold negotiations, in order to, rate of exchange, terms, unemployed, to render services, to bear the risks, to justify, at any rate, machinery
1. Our companies shall . . . on this matter next week.

2. Our car agency . . . any kind of . . . in repairing.

3. The first night performance of this play was . . . .

4. They will call us . . . find out all the details of the situation.

5. He has been . . . for several months already.

6. The children are well . . . .

7. The other party shall . . . all . . . concerning transportation.

8. Under certain conditions the . . . can rise.

9. I can’t help you . . . as I have no certain information on the question.

10. Are you . . . with solving that question soon?

11. All the risks were . . . because as a result the deal turned out to be

profitable.

12. All the points concerning accommodation and . . . expenses, worker’s

salary and terms of running the production into operation were defined at

the shareholders’ meeting.
Exercise 2. Образуйте новые слова и переведите
А. Существительные различного значения от глаголов: to perform,

to employ, to negotiate, to accumulate, to share, to accommodate, to invest,

to return, to save, to measure, to possess, to exchange
B. Прилагательные от глаголов и существительных: to measure, success, profit, value, to care
Exercise 3. Переведите с русского на английский язык словосочетания:

вести переговоры, прибавочная стоимость, курс валюты, отвечать за риск, с целью (для того, чтобы), пользоваться успехом, заботиться о ком-либо, быть выгодным, в результате, в любом случае, фиксированная оплата труда, таким образом, следовательно, иметь дело, касаться чего-либо, как товары – так и услуги, услуги, оказываемые людьми друг другу, условия оплаты
Exercise 4. Поставьте необходимый модальный глагол в соответствующей форме (сап/could, may/might, should, need, must):
1. . . . I come in?

2. . . . you help me?

3. He asked if he . . . take his sister to the party.

4. The teacher said that everybody . . . take part in the picnic.

5. . . . I take your dictionary?

6. . . . you tell me the nearest way to the city museum?

7. . . . I go to the country tomorrow? - No, you . . . not.

8. His health is not too strong. He . . . stop smoking.

9. She asked me if she . . . use my telephone.

10. We . . . hurry if we don’t want to be late.

11. I’m afraid you will miss the train. You . . . take a taxi.

12. There’s something wrong with your TV-set. You . . . call a repairman. -

Oh, we . . . not do it! My brother . . . fix it himself.

13. You . . . not stay here if you don’t want.

14. Everything is all right. You see that you . . . not worry.

15. You . . . not put so much pepper in the meal. No one will be able to eat it.

16. It’s raining hard. You . . . put your raincoat on.
Exercise 5. Поставьте необходимые заменители модальных глаголов

(to be able to, to have to, to be to, to be allowed to) в соответствующей

форме:
1. We shall not (can) arrive on date, as planned.

2. You really (must) work harder if you want to pass that examination.

3. You (not, must) pay to get in the library.

4. Smoking (not, may) here.

5. I (must) wait her at the station last night.

6. Will you (can) translate this article by Monday?

7. You (not, need) change the whole text as the beginning is all right.

8. He was out when we came, so we (need) wait him for over an hour.

9. The train (must) arrive in a few minutes.

10. I (must) solve the problem myself.

11. I think I (can) make all the arrangements in time.

12. As it (not, may) take extra weight, we (must) pay extra charge.

13. She (must) telephone us the moment she was out of danger.

14. We’ll (must) send an urgent message as we will (not, can) prepare the

papers so soon.

15. We (must) get there before the others.

Vocabulary List 2

1. retail розничная продажа

2. to strike ударять

a strike забастовка

striking 1.Замечательный,поражающий

2.Ударный

3. to apply to 1. Обращаться 2. Применять

application обращение, применение

4. to issue выпускать, издавать

5. a set 1. Набор 2. Установка

6. extreme чрезвычайный

extremely чрезвычайно

7. few мало

a few несколько

8. to fill in заполнять бланк

9. convenient удобный

convenience удобство

10. to rely on полагаться на

11. to pay off 1. Расплачиваться, рассчитываться

2. Покрывать долг

12. a balance 1. Равновесие 2. Баланс, остаток, сальдо

13. outstanding 1. Выдающийся 2. Невыполнимый,

неуплаченный

14. interest rate процентная ставка, норма процента

15. a holder держатель акций, акционер

16. fraud 1. Обман, подделка 2. Обманщик,

мошенник

17. a stage ступень, шаг

18. sufficient достаточный

19. to point out выделить,подчеркнуть,обратить внимание

20. an origin 1. Происхождение 2. Начало, источник

in origin = originally первоначально

21. claims on требования, претензии

22. confidence доверие

23. to break down разрушать(ся), ломать(ся),

приходить в упадок

24. occasionally изредка, случайно, время от времени

25. to replace замещать

replacement замещение, замена

26. sophisticated усложненный, уточненный

27. to debit вносить в дебет

28. to accept 1. Принимать, допускать

2. Акцептировать

acceptable приемлемый

29. a payer плательщик

a payée получатель

30. to honour оплачивать в срок (по векселю)

31. instantly немедленно, тотчас

32. to withdraw (cash) изымать, отзывать (деньги, наличные)

Text 2. Development of money
Retail banks were at the forefront of one of the most striking developments in personal finance over the last twenty years – the credit card. Barclays was the first with the Barclay-card (Visa); the other three banks then responded with Access (MasterCard). However, all four banks have now applied to issue both sets of cards.

Using a credit card is an extremely expensive form of borrowing with an interest rate of around 25 per cent annum. But a card is very easy to obtain – there are very few forms to fill in. It is also convenient to use for the shopper.

Credit card companies rely for profit on the fact that consumers do not pay off the balance at the end of the month. The sum outstanding is very small but the interest rate is high. There are surprisingly few bad debts among credit card holders – fraud is much more of a problem. The fact that large items can be bought with a card (unlike a cheque which normally can be used only to cover items of under £ 50) makes credit cards very attractive to the sneak thief who can run up a bill of several thousand pounds in the course of a few hours. However, the problem of the forgery of the cards themselves seems to have been solved by the incorporation in the design of holograms and computer codes.

The next stages of the development of money are banknotes and cheques. It is sufficient to point out here that banknotes were, in origin, claims on gold and silver. Now money depends on the confidence of its users in the strength of the economy. When economies break down (as they occasionally do in wartime) money disappears and is replaced by some other commodity such as cigarettes.

As money has grown more sophisticated, so it has grown farther away from its origins. For large sums, payment by cheque is far easier and safer than payment by notes and coins. The money is debited from the payer’s bank account and credited to the payee’s. Even if someone presents a cheque for cash at a bank, he or she will be paid in banknotes, which are, in origin, only a claim on the real assets, gold and silver. The system depends on the confidence of all those concerned. Shopkeepers accept cheques because banks will honour them. Bank accounts are therefore money in the same sense as notes and coins are, since they can be used instantly to purchase goods.

Banks can thus create money. This is because only a small proportion of the deposits they hold is needed to meet the claims of those who want to withdraw cash. Those who deposit cash meet much of the need. Simple way for a bank to lend money is to create a deposit (or account) in someone’s favour.

EXERCISES
Exercise 1. Поставьте слова и словосочетания в соответствующие предложения и переведите:
debit, to accept, sufficient, a few, few, to run up, to break down, to rely on,

a payer, a payée, to apply, to fill in
1. The Government intends . . . economic sanctions.

2. He can always be . . . for help.

3. Balance-sheet is a written statement showing credit and . . . .

4. Negotiations have . . . .

5. . . . is a person who pays or is to pay.

6. . . . is a person to whom something is to be paid.

7. Have we . . . food for ten people tonight?

8. One is to . . . application form . . . when applying for a job.

9. The payée will prefer . . . the payment for the purchase in advance.

10. I’ve got . . . English books, you can take some if you like.

11. He’s got very . . . friends who knows any foreign language perfectly.

12. He has . . . a bill in the bank quite enough to acquire real estate abroad.
Exercise 2. Образуйте новые слова и переведите
А. Существительные от глаголов: to apply, to set, to pay, to hold, to replace,

to withdraw, to solve, to pay, to purchase
B. Наречия от прилагательных: occasional, instant, extreme, easy, surprising, real, original
Exercise 3. Переведите выражения:
применять, обращаться, применение, устанавливать, удобный, выплачивать, сломаться, достаточный, замещение, искусный, плательщик, получатель, снимать со счета, доверие, указывать, выделять, немедленно, тотчас, изредка, первоначально
Exercise 4. Поставьте необходимые местоимения some/any/no или соответствующие им слова something/somebody, anything/anybody, nothing/nobody.
1. There’s . . . at the door. Can you go and see who it is?

2. I haven’t read . . . of these books, but Tom has read . . . of them.

3. He left the house without saying . . . to . . . .

4. Would you like . . . more coffee?

5. Does . . . mind if I open the window?

6. Is there . . . news? - Yes, there are . . . letters on the desk.

7. If . . . difficulties arise, let me know.

8. I take . . . sugar with my tea, as I’m keeping a diet.

9. He told us . . . strange story.

10. They have got really good friends. Have you got . . . ?

11. It’s so dark here. Can you see . . . in front of us?

12. I’m sure . . . can be done under the circumstances.

13. The film is really great. You can ask . . . who has seen it.

14. If . . . asks you . . . questions, don’t tell them . . . .

15. There must be . . . who saw the accident.

UNIT 3. SUPPLY AND DEMAND

Vocabulary List

1. change 1. Менять 2. Сдача, размен

changeable разменный

to change clothes переодеваться

money разменивать деньги

one’s mind передумать

2. a commodity товар, продукт потребления

commodity capital товарный капитал

commodity production товарное производство

value of capital товарная стоимость

3. expenditure затрата, потраченная сумма или

количество

4. expense деньги, затраченные или необходимые

5. as long as до тех пор, пока

6. utility польза,

7. sacrifice 1. Жертва 2. Вклад

8. a purchase покупка

to purchase закупать

a purchaser покупатель

9. to decrease = to fall снижаться, падать

to increase = to rise повышаться

10. limit 1. Ограничение 2.Ограничивать

11. a point 1. Точка 2. Кризис

to point указывать

to point out выделять

12. relation/relationship 1. Отношение 2. Связь

to relate to иметь отношение

relatively относительно

13. to exist существовать

14. on the one hand с одной стороны

on the other hand с другой стороны

15. a desire = a wish желание

desirable желаемый

16. to tend стремиться, иметь тенденцию
17. to diminish уменьшаться

the Law of Diminishing Закон снижения предельности

Marginal Utility насыщения

18. to reduce сокращать

reduction сокращение

19. elasticity гибкость, эластичность

20. as a response to в ответ на

21. to offer 1.Предлагать 2. Предложение

22. particular определенный, частный, особый

particularly особенно, в частности

23. care 1. Забота 2. Заботиться

carefully внимательный

carelessly внимательно

24. income доход

25. according to согласно, в соответствии с

26. a scale шкала

27. essential главный, значительный

essentially в основном, главным образом

28. luxury роскошь

29. insurance страховка

to insure страховать

30. to seem казаться

31. quantity количество

32. to regard рассматривать

33. necessary необходимый

necessarily необходимо

34. steeply чрезмерно, круто

35. to explain объяснять

explanation объяснение

36. flow of funds поток капитала

37. to reduce уменьшить

reduction снижение, сокращение

38. to borrow занимать, брать

(a book from the library) (книгу в библиотеке)

39. to lend давать взаймы, ссужать

40. to be likely быть возможным, вероятным

likely вероятный

He is likely to come soon. Он, вероятно, скоро придет.

41. to affect влиять, воздействовать

42. to expect ждать, предполагать

expectation ожидание

43. to achieve достигать

achievement достижение

44. willing готовый

willingly охотно

willingness желание, готовность

45. largely в значительной степени

46. a spouse супруг, супруга

47. normally нормально, обыкновенно

48. assurance 1. Уверенность 2. Страхование

49. tax advantages налоговые льготы

advantage преимущество

disadvantage недостаток

50. substantial значительный, существенный

51. liquid 1. Жидкий 2. Изменчивый

3. Легко реализуемый (о ценных

бумагах)

52. to allow разрешать, допускать

allowance 1. Разрешение 2. Допущение

3. Надбавка или скидка; налог

53. major главный, преимущественный

majority большинство
Text

In most economic systems, the price of the majority of goods and services are fixed. The individual cannot change the prices of the commodities he wants, and when planning his expenditure, he must accept these prices. A consumer will go on buying cigarettes as long as his satisfaction continues and they render utility. If he continues to pay the current price, his satisfaction is greater than his financial sacrifice. With each purchase, however, his satisfaction decreases, although the prices remain the same. If a consumer’s supply of money is limited, point will come when the financial sacrifice is greater than the satisfaction of smoking cigarettes. He will stop buying the commodity. The cigarettes are the same, but their utility has changed. If the prices rose, he would buy fewer; if they fell, he might buy more.

We can see that the nature of a commodity remains the same, but its utility change. This indicates that a special relationship exists between goods and services on the one hand and a consumer and his money on the other hand. The consumer’s desire for a commodity tends to diminish as he buys more units of the commodity. This tendency is called the Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility.

Utility is of course related to the Laws of Supply and Demand. When economists talk about a Law of Supply, they mean that the rise in prices tends to increase the supply of a commodity, while a fall in prices tends to reduce it. When they talk about a Law of Demand, they mean that a fall in prices tends to increase the demand for a commodity, while a rise in prices tends to decrease the demand.

Elasticity of supply, as a response to changes in price, is related to demand. Economists define “demand” as a consumer’s desire or want, together with his willingness to pay for what he wants. We can say that demand is indicated by our willingness to offer money for particular goods or services. Money has no value in itself, but serves as a mean of exchange between commodities, which do have a value to us.

People very seldom have everything they want. Usually we have to decide carefully how we spend our income. When we exercise our choice, we do so according to our personal scale of preferences. In this scale of preferences essential commodities come first (food, clothing, shelter, medical expenses, etc.) then the kind of luxuries, which help us to be comfortable (telephone, special furniture, insurance, etc.), and finally those non-essentials, which give us personal pleasure (holidays, parties, visits to theatres or concerts, chocolates, etc.). They may all seem important, but their true importance can be measured by deciding which we are prepared to live without. Our decisions indicate our scale of preferences and therefore our priorities.

Elasticity of demand is a measure of the change in the quantity of a good, in response to demand. The change in demand results from a change in price. Demand is elastic when a good is regarded as a basic necessity, but particularly elastic for non-essential commodities. Accordingly, we buy basic necessities even if the price rise steeply, but we buy other things only when they are relatively cheap.

The classical explanation of the level of interest rates is associated with the theory of supply and demand. Thus the interest rate is the balancing point between the flow of funds from savers and the need for investment funds from business. If more funds become available from savers, or if industry has less need to borrow, interest rates will fall. If the funds available from savers are reduced, or if industry has a greater need to borrow, interest rates will rise. The demand for funds is likely to be affected by businessmen’s expectations of future profits. If they believe that they will achieve a high rate of return on investment, they will be willing to borrow.

The supply of funds for borrowers depends largely on the willingness of the personal sector to save. Why do people save? One of the main reasons is to provide for old age or for children and spouses in the event of early death. This form of saving normally takes the form of investment in pension funds and life assurance and is helped by tax advantages. There has been a substantial growth in this form of saving since the 1960’s. Another reason is to guard against rainy days caused by illness or unemployment: by its nature, such saving needs to be very liquid and is normally placed in building societies or interest-bearing bank accounts. A third reason for saving is to allow for major purchases or for holidays.
EXERCISES

Exercise 1. Поставьте слова и словосочетания в соответствующие предложения и переведите:
to accept, income, to seem, on the one hand, likely, a deal, effort, to point out, particular, careless, to allow, on the other hand, a change, a purchase, change,

a decrease, to point out, quality, advantages, in return for, an insurance policy, one’s mind, expenses
1. Can you give me . . . for a pound note?

2. Don’t leave your . . . on the shop counter!

3. Let’s hope there will be . . . in the weather!

4. Will you . . . the offer to conclude the deal?

5. First we wanted to dine out last night, but then we changed . . . and

stayed at home.

6. . . . is money received during a given period (as salary, receipts from

trade, interest from investments, etc.).

7. I have some . . . to make.

8. There has been . . . in imports this year.

9. This . . . turned out to be the main point of our business.

10. I must . . . that the price is too high.

11. The . . . and . . . needed for that project bore no relation to the results.

12. He . . . to think so.

13. He took . . . interest in that problem.

14. A . . . driver is a danger to the public.

  1. . . . , the quantity of our production should be increased, but . . . , we are

to pay particular attention to the goods’ . . . .

16. According to an . . . a client will get an insurance indemnity in

case of losses or damages . . . regular payment.

17. He is not . . . to succeed.

18. Smoking is not . . . on board the plane.

19. He is the kind of man who always takes full . . . of every opportunity.
Exercise 2. Образуйте однокоренные слова и переведите их на русский язык.
А. Прилагательные с суффиксами, имеющими различное значение, от глаголов: to change, to accept, to relate, to desire, to care;
B. Наречия от прилагательных: normal, large, most, relative, marginal, particular, willing, careful, careless, essential, necessary, according, steep;
C. Причастия 1 и П от глаголов: to change, to accept, to purchase, to increase, to decrease, to limit, to point, to relate, to exist, to desire, to diminish, to offer,

to care, to insure, to regard, to associate, to reduce, to expect.
Exercise 3. Переведите с русского языка на английский словосочетания и выражения:

с одной стороны – с другой стороны, в соответствии с контрактом, страховой полис, проявлять особый интерес, сокращать производство, рост безработицы, страховое возмещение, качество и количество, принять приглашение (подарок, предложение), приемлемые условия, товарная стоимость, менять решение, закупать товары, развивать торговые связи, до

тех пор, пока, занимать, ссужать, достижение, налоговые льготы, большая часть, вероятно
Exercise 4. Вставьте данные глаголы в необходимой форме Passive Voice

в соответствующие предложения:
wake, knock, check, translate, find, drive, make, take
1. That building is dangerous. It ought to … down before it falls down.

2. When you go through Customs, your luggage may … by a customs officer.

3. I told the hotel receptionist that I wanted to … up at 6.30.

4. Her new book will probably … into a number of foreign languages.

5. Police are looking for the missing boy. He can’t … anywhere.

6. The injured man couldn’t walk and had to … to hospital.

7. I don’t mind driving but I prefer to … by other people.

8. A decision will not … until the next morning.

Exercise 5. Поставьте глаголы в предложениях в необходимой форме

(Present Indefinite Passive, Present Continuous Passive, Present Perfect Passive)
1. The preparations for the party just (finish) and the guests are already arriving.

2. – The cat (feed) yet? – Not yet.

3. He (not see) for a week already.

4. You ever (teach) how to play chess?

5. I just (advise) to keep a diet.

6. Papers (deliver) usually at 8 a.m., they (look through) at the moment and

you’ll get yours soon.

7. – Where is your car? – It (fill) in the garage at the moment.

8. We are finishing the last preparations for the party: the light (switch on),

the floors (clean), the tables (lay). Do you think we’ll be ready on time?

9. Lots of people (operate on) in this clinic. And now unfortunately my uncle

John (operate) on here.

10. You can’t use the fax now, it (fix).
Exercise 6. Вставьте необходимые по смыслу выражения few (мало)/

a few(немного):
1. We didn’t have any money. But Tom had … .

2. He doesn’t speak … English. Only … words.

  1. This town isn’t very well-known and there isn’t much to see, so tourists . . .

come here.

4. I don’t think she would be a good teacher. She’s got … patience with the

children.

5. This is not the first time the car has broken down. It has happened … times

before.

6. The café was almost empty. There were very … people there.

7. There is a shortage of water because there has been very … rain recently.

8. We’ll have to hurry. We haven’t got … time.

9. I can’t believe you’re still hungry. You’ve had eaten so … .

10. Why are you sitting there doing nothing? You’ve got … things to do.

1   2   3   4   5   6   7

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